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KARAKORAM 

AND 

WESTERN    HIMALAYA 

1909. 


TUT    INTO    ENGLISH    BY    CAROLINTi;    DE    KlLll'lM    «-     FIT/CKIIAI,!) 

ANll   H.   T.    PORTER. 


THE     ILLUSTRATIONS     FROM      PHOTOGRAI'IIS     TAKKX      HV 
VITTORIO   SELLA,   iMKMHEU   OK   THE   EXPEDITION. 


KARAKORAM 

AND 

WESTERN    HIMALAYA 

1909 

AN    ACCOUNT    OV    THE    EXPEDITION 


H.R.H. 
FRINCIi     LU1(,I    AMKDliCJ    ()!•     SAV()\" 

miKK    Ol'     TIIK    AllHRUZ/.I 


FILIPPO    DE,FILIP1'I,     F.R.G.S. 

Willi    A    Prekack    i;\ 

II.R.II. 

THE    DUKK    OF    THE    ABRUZZI 


NEW    YORK 
H.    v.    DUTTON    AND    COMPANY 

j;i     West    Twc'iUy-Thinl    Strciei. 
1912 


HARRISON    AND    SONS, 

Printer©   in    Ordinary    to   His   Majesty, 

45-47,  St.  Martins  Lane,  W.C. 


r  ^  .•'^, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFOBNjA   SAN  PjEGO 

,,,,„JllilliliiiliiiliiliiiillXU;i!ji^ 
3  1822  01659  5423 


TRANSLATOR'S    NOTE. 


The  thanks  of  the  translator  are  due  and  are  here  gratefully  expressed  to 
Cesare  Foligno,  M.A.,  J.  S.  Gamble,  C.I.E.,  F.E.S.,  F.L.S.,  and  Capt.  Howard  Knox, 
who  have  been  so  kind  as  to  read  various  parts  of  the  translation. 

H.  T.  P. 


497()ir> 

GSOCHCAFirr 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Preface.    By  H.R.H.  The  Duke  ol  tho  Abiuzzi          xi 

INTRODUCTION.     Origin  and  Nature  o£  the  ExiM'dit  ioii             xv 

Chapter  I. — The  Himalaya       1 

Chapter  II. — From  Marseilles  to  Srinaoar          14 

Chapter  III. — Kashmir -51 

Chapter  IV. — The  Sind  Valley         -ty 

Chapter  V. — Zoji  La      63 

Chapter  VI. — The  Dras  Valley         "2 

Chapter  VII. — The  Indus  Valley      92 

Chapter  VIII. — From  Olthingthakg  to  Sk.\rdu 112 

Chapter  IX. — From  Skardu  to  Askoley.     The  Shioar  and  Braldoh  Valleys          ...  i:!2 

Chapter  X.     From  .•Xskoley  to  Rdok.vss.     The  Bl\i'0  and  Baltoro  (Glaciers 101 

Chapter  XI. — Rdokass 189 

Chapter  XII — From  Rdok.\ss  to  the  Concordia  Amphitheatre        204 

Chapter  XIII. — From  Concordia  to  the  Foot  ok  K=.     Prelimin.vry  Investigations 

and  First  Attempt      ...        ...         ...        ...        ...        ...         ...         ...        ...         ...  21!) 

Chapter  XIV. — The  Savoia  Gl.vcier  j\nd  Pass      241 

Chapter  XV. — The  Upper  Godwin  Austen  (Jlacier  and  the  Eastern  Slopes  ok  K  =...  :2'>;5 

Chapter  XVI. — From  the  B.vse  of  K=  to  the  Foot  ok  Bride  Peak.     The  Upper 

BjVltoro  (1l.\cier          277 

Ch.vpter  XVII.— Bride  Peak 3o:{ 

Ch.\pter  XVIII. — Titk  Return  to  Srinagar           325 

Chapter  XIX. — Supplementary  Notes  and  Consider.\tions     351 

Appendix  A. — Plidtdgrainnntric  Survey          ...         ...         ...         ...         •••         -.•         •■•  375 

Appendi.>c  B. — Meteorological  Report  and  .Mliiiietrie  Calculations  ...          ...          ...         ...  'i'J'S 

.Appendix  C. — Geological  Results           ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  42'.i 

Appendix  D. — Botanical  Report            ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         •••         ■•.  455 

Indices. 


PREFACE. 


Once  mai-e  I  entrust  to 
Cav.  Filifpo  De  Filippi,  my 
travelling  companion,  the  complete 
account  of  my  late  expedition. 
I  am  grateful  to  him  for  under- 
taking the  task,  and  I  hope 
that  his  revived  memories  of 
our  journey  may  have  rendered  his  labour  less  burdensome. 

The  detailed  history  of  our  wanderings  will  explain  better  than  I  was 
able  to  do  in  my  short  lectures  before  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  and  the 
Italian  Geographical  Society,  the  difficulties  and  obstacles  which  the 
expedition  encountered.  The  map  of  the  Baltoro  glacier  which  accompanies 
this  volume  was  planned  arid  executed  at  the  Military  Geographical 
Institute  of  Florence  from  photogrammetric  panoramas  assisted  by 
tacheometer  observations  taken  during  the  campaign  by  Ship's  Lieutenant 
Marchese  Federico  Negrotto  Cambiaso.  I  am  glad  of  this  opportunity  to 
express  my  warm  thanks  to  Ing.  Comm.  Pio  Paganini,  the  inventor  of  the 
photogrammetric  method,  who  has  been  at  all  times  most  generous  with  aid 
and  advice  ;  to  Major-General  Ernesto  Gliamas,  Director  of  the  Military 
Geographical  Institute  of  Florence  ;  to  Lieut.-Colonel  Prospero  Baglione  ; 
to  Captain  Nicola  Vacchelli ;  to  the  topographers  FoHunaio  Senno  and 
Giuseppe  Galli ;  and  to  all  others  u>ho  co-operated  in  the  construction  of 
the  inap. 


xii  Preface. 

Professor  Domenico  Omodei  has  once  more  taken  upon  himself  the 
wearisome  task  of  calculating  and  collating  the  statistics  gathered  from  my 
meteorological  observations,  thus  increasing  the  debt  of  gratitude  already 
incurred  by  me  for  his  help  in  former  expeditions. 

I  am  likewise  most  grateful  to  Ing.  Vittorio  Novarese,  of  the  Regie 
Ufficio  Geologico,  for  the  geological  survey  he  has  witten,  based  upon  the 
observations  made  by  tJie  expedition  ;  and  to  Professor  Romualdo  Pirotta 
and  to  Dr.  Fabrizio  Cortesi  for  tJieir  botanical  notes  upon  the  plants 
collected  by  Dr.  De  Filippi. 

I  hope  tliat  this  book,  together  with  the  beautiful  photographs  taken 
by  Gav.  Uff.  Vittorio  Sella,  will  succeed  in  conveying  to  the  reader  some 
portion  of  the  profound  impression  made  upon  us  by  our  months  of  sojourn 
in  the  Karakoram.  Our  work  will  not  have  been  in  vain  if  it  prove  to  be 
of  assistance  to  future  explorers  of  that  distant  and  majestic  regioti. 


(yjyiyiA^.'iS^  '~      Sk  "   s$C^t^^ 


^y^-^!^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


NOTE. 

'I'llK  iMirnrnclaluic  ami  fjconiiipliiciil  sprlliiij;  mlcipd-d  in  (liis  liunk  ;vii-  tliusc  <>l  the  Indian  Survey 
Mid  ol  tlic  Knglisli  Royal  (iiojiiapliical  iSocicty.  As  a  inattcr  of  fact  llie  native  names  have 
not  always  been  tiansorihed  with  lixed  rules  of  transliteration,  owing  to  tlu^  impossibility  of 
liiuling  in  the  European  alpliabet  signs  whicli  correspond  to  the  Indian  vowels.  .Short  e  is 
sometimes  transcribed  by  ii  and  sometimes  by  a.  whereas  u  is  transcribed  at  times  as  oo  and 
at  times  as  u.     Thus  we  find  written  indifferently  JheUim  and  Jhelum.  Jammoii  and  Jammii,  etc. 

Despite  these  and  a  few  other  uncertainties,  it  is  better  to  preserve  the  more  usual  names  as 
lliey  are  spelt  on  all  Kuro|iean  maps.  By  writing,  as  some  authors  do.  ]).irlicliim,  for  Jlnlum, 
Sellcdnrh  for  tlulhj,  Dschemmn  for  Jniniiuu/,  and  so,  we  can  only  succeed  in  prrplexini:  the  riailcr 
even  by  the  brst-known  names.  Colonel  Jiurrard.  the  well-known  Director  of  the  Indian  Trigono- 
metrical Survey,  rightly  observes  that  for  geographers,  uniformity  of  spelling  is  more  important 
than  accuracy. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  vowels  have  the  same  sound  as  in  the  Latin  languages. 

The  words  right  and  left,  with  reference  to  rivers  and  valleys,  are  to  be  taken  in  the  I  rue 
geogra|)liieal  sense,  independent  of  the  direction  of  march  ;  wher<'as  upon  cols  autl  passes  the)- 
are  given  with  reference  to  the  position  of  the  observer. 


INTRODUCTION. 


ORIGIN     AND     NATURE    OF    THE     EXPEDITION. 


His  i{oyal  Highness  Prince  Luigi 
Aiuedeo  of  Savoy,  J3uke  of  the 
Abiuzzi,  was  induced  to  set  out 
upon  this  new  expedition  chiefly  by 
his  desire  to  contribute  to  the 
solution  of  the  problem  as  to  the 
greatest  height  to  which  man  may 
attain  in  momitain  cUmbing. 

Physiologists  have  long  given 
their  attention  to  a  study  of  the 
eii'ects  of  reduced  atmosjiheric 
pressure  upon  the  human  system, 
whether  in  baUoon  ascents  to  great 
heights  or  by  confinemeut  in  rooms 
contrived  for  the  artificial  diminution  of  the  pressure  of  the  air.  The 
result  of  these  experiments  appears  to  show  that  hfe  is  possible  under 
atmospheric  pressure  reduced  far  below  the  limit  marked  by  the 
barometer  on  the  highest  summits  of  the  earth. 

The  very  nature  of  the  scientific  experiment,  how^ever,  which  is  to 
reduce  each  phenomenon  to  i1^  simplest  terms,  deprives  this  conclusion 
of  all  possible  value  as  a  forecast  of  the  solution  of  the  problem  which 
interests  the  mountaineer  and  the  geographer. 

For  this  problem  is  complicated  for  us  I^y  the  length  of  the  sojourn 
at  low  atmospheric  pressure  ;  by  the  severe  physical  exertion  ineAatable 
in  high  ascents,  and  often  protracted  for  days  or  weeks ;    by  extremes 


XVI 


Introduction. 


of  temperature  and  other  special  conditions  of  climate,  whose  action 
upon  the  organism  is  still  obscure.  And  all  these  are  factors  which 
influence  the  physical  and  mental  condition  of  the  explorer  in  varying 
degrees.  The  solution  cannot,  therefore,  be  based  upon  scientific 
reasoning,  but  only  on  direct  experience.  Up  to  the  present  time  the 
result  of  experiment  has  been  a  slow  but  uninterrupted  progress  toward 
the  attainment  of  the  greater  heights  ;  and  there  is  nothing  to  show 
that  we  are  reaching  a  final  limit.  From  the  first  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc 
(15,780  feet  above  the  sea  level)  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
up  to  the  present  day  we  have  gained  8,820  feet.  It  is  not  much ;  but 
we  must  remember  that  most  of  the  expeditions  in  question  had  for  their 
object  rather  the  exploration  of  distant  and  unknown  regions  than 
the  ascent  of  the  high  peaks  which  those  regions  might  contain.  Again, 
such  undertakings  are  possible  to  very  few  men.  They  require  profoimd 
technical  experience  of  geographical  exploration  and  long  and  costly 
preparations,  since  they  are  made  in  uncivilized  or  uninhabited  regions 
where  it  is  necessary  to  carry  a  complicated  and  heavy  equipment  to 
a  great  distance  ;  where  it  is  not  possible  to  find  natives  who  are  exj^ert 
in  glacier  and  rock  work ;  and  where,  on  account  of  these  drawbacks, 
it  is  very  difficult,  even  impossible,  to  transport  camp  material  and 
the  necessaries  of  life  above  a  certain  height. 

The  residt  is  that  explorers  often  deprive  themselves  of  comforts 
needful  to  ensure  due  rest  from  fatigue,  to  protect  themselves  from 
cold,  or  even  sometimes  to  furnish  sufficient  or  suitable  bodily  nourish- 
ment. Thus  they  reach  the  spot  where  the  maximum  effort  is  required 
of  them  with  their  forces  already  diminished  by  overstrain  and  suffering 
from  the  lack  of  everything  beyond  the  mere  necessities  to  which  they 
have  reduced  their  equipment.  In  the  end  the  highest  peaks  may  turn 
out  to  be  very  difficult  to  cHmb,  or  even  entirely  inaccessible,  because 
of  the  condition  of  the  rock  or  glacier.  All  these  material  obstacles, 
combined  with  bad  weather  and  the  shortness  of  the  seasons,  have  up 
to  now  done  far  more  than  diminished  atmospheric  pressure  to  hmit 
the  activity  of  mountaineers  in  this  special  field  of  great  altitudes. 

The  giant  ranges  into  which  His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  the 
Abruzzi  led  his  expedition  were  not  kind  to  him,  nor  was  the  weather 
favom'able.  Nevertheless,  he  succeeded  in  making  a  step  forward 
toward  the  conquest  of  the  greatest  heights  after  siich  a  struggle  as  is 
perhaps   unexampled   in   the    history    of    mountaineering.     This   was. 


Introduction.  xvii 

however,  but  the  hist  stage  of  a  campaign  which  was  rich  in  moun- 
taineering and  exploring  work  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  data  for 
the  more  accurate  knowledge  of  a  system  of  ranges  that,  taken  all 
together,  is  perhaps  the  grandest  in  the  world.  The  expedition  lived 
for  over  two  months  on  the  Karakoram  glaciers.  It  brought  back 
a  large  number  of  photographs  of  the  group,  a  topographical  survey  of 
a  portion  of  the  high  glacier  basins,  many  new  altimetric  measurements 
and  meteorological  data  systematically  collected,  and  new  glaciological 
and  geological  observations,  as  well  as  the  experience  of  a  long  sojourn 
at  low  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  part  of  both  Europeans  and  natives. 

To  reach  the  Karakoram  the  expedition  had  to  cross  the  vast 
mountainous  region  which  hes  between  Kashmir  and  Chinese  Turkestan, 
taking  a  different  route  each  way.  The  country  through  which  they 
passed  is  known  only  in  its  general  outhnes,  and  its  ethnological,  chmatic 
and  geological  characteristics  are  peculiar  to  itself.  In  the  course  of 
my  narrative  I  shall  mention  the  principal  problems  which  this  strange 
region  propounds  to  the  traveller. 

Let  me  close  my  brief  account  of  the  objects  of  the  expedition  by 
a  word  of  thanks  in  my  own  name  and  that  of  my  companions  to  His 
Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi,  to  whose  energy,  will,  decision 
and  power  of  organization  we  are  indebted  for  the  rich  memories  of 
new  experiences  we  have  brought  back  with  us  from  our  journey. 

FiLIPPO   De   FlLlPPI. 

Eome.     October,  1911. 


(9221) 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE    HIMALAYA. 

Dimensions  and  Geographical  Limits.  —  Inhabitants.  —  Work  of  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of 
India.  —  Statistics  of  Peaks.  —  The  Sikkim  Himalaya.  —  Kabru  and  Kinchinjunga. — 
The  Expeditions  of  Rubenson  and  Monrad  Aas  and  of  Freshfield.  —  The  Nepaul  Himalaya. 
—  Mount  Everest.  —  The  Himalaya  of  Kumaun  and  Clahrwal.  —  The  Nun  Kun  Peaks.  — 
The  Expedition  of  the  Workmans. — -Nanga  Parbat  and  the  Mummery  Catastrophe. — ■ 
The  Karakoram  and  the  Hindu  Kush.  —  The  Five  Glacial  Basins  of  the  Karakoram.  — 
Previous  Explorations  of  the  Karakoram :  Vigne,  Falconer,  Thomson,  Schlagintweit, 
Conway  and  the  Workmans.  —  The  Baltoro  Glacier.  —  From  Godwin  Austen  to  Ecken- 
stein-Pfannl-Guillarmod.  —  K  ^.  —  Nomenclature. 

It  is  difficult  without  a  certain 
degree  of  acquaintance  with 
geography  to  form  a  clear  idea  of 
the  relative  sizes  of  different  regions 
of  the  globe.  This  is  especially 
true  as  regards  those  remote 
countries  known  to  most  of  us 
through  the  atlas  only,  in  which 
they  are  rendered  on  a  far  smaller 
scale  than  the  famihar  countries  of 
our  own  civihzation.  Probably  few 
people  guess  how  vast  and  how 
varied  is  the  portion  of  the  earth 
to  which  we  assign  the  name 
Himalaya. 

I  suppose  that  to  most  minds 
this  word  suggests  the  image  of  a  lofty  mountain  range,  rearing  up  to 
the  sky  a  series  of  peaks  covered  with  everlasting  snow,  which  overlook 
the  torrid  plains  of  India. 

But  the  name  Himalaya  denotes  no  mere  chain  of  mountains, 
however  high  and  however  long  we  may  imagine  it.  It  denotes  a 
complex  system  of  ranges,  of  immense  table-lands,  of  intricate  valleys 

(9221)  A 


2  Chapter   1. 

and  of  mighty  rivers,  that  has  no  rival  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  Put 
together  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  Europe,  great  and  small,  including 
the  Caucasus,  and  the  result  is  not  even  comparable  in  size  to  the  giant 
backbone  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 

Most  modern  geographers  include  in  the  term  Himalaya  the  whole 
of  the  mountainous  region  about  500  miles  wide,  which  forms  a  barrier 
between  the  Indian  peninsula  and  Central  Asia  from  Afghanistan  to 
Burma, — a  distance  of  over  1,500  miles,  equivalent  to  that  between 
Naples  and  St.  Petersburg.  This  barrier  is  formed  by  a  series  of 
approximately  parallel  ranges  running  mainly  from  north-west  to  south- 
east, and  increasing  in  height  northward  up  to  the  giant  peaks  which 
bound  the  table-land  of  Central  Asia.  Here  the  mighty  rivers  of  India 
spring  from  the  feet  of  mountains  as  famed  in  legend  as  the  streams 
whose  sources  they  shelter — worshipped  like  them,  and  hke  them  objects 
of  pilgrimages  on  so  vast  a  scale  as  to  seem  like  migrations  of  entire 
peoples. 

The  western  end  of  this  group  of  ranges  reaches  about  the  same 
latitude  as  the  south  coast  of  Sicily,  while  the  eastern  end  runs  down 
as  far  as  the  Red  Sea.  Thus  the  valleys  gradually  rising  towards  the 
north-west  along  an  oblique  Une  present  every  conceivable  variety  of 
climate,  vegetation  and  produce.  They  contain  whole  nations  with 
various  pohtical  organizations,  tribes  of  diverse  races  and  origins  : 
Aryans,  Turanians,  primitive  aborigines,  at  every  stage  of  civilization, 
speaking  an  endless  number  of  different  tongues,  professing  every 
reUgion  of  Asia — Hindu,  Mohammedan,  Buddhist  and  Animist — and 
exemplifying  social  customs  which  range  from  polygamy  to  polyandry. 
The  future  undoubtedly  has  historical  evolutions  in  store  for  this  region 
which  cannot  fail  to  exert  an  influence  upon  the  nations  of  Europe. 

There  will  be  work  enough  for  many  generations  of  geographers, 
geologists,  ethnologists  and  naturahsts  before  we  come  to  know  the 
Himalaya  in  its  details.  And  what  of  the  mountaineer  ?  It  scarcely 
seems  possible  that  man  should  ever  succeed  in  completely  exploring 
that  forest  of  peaks.  Thousands  of  them  probably  reach  up  to 
20,000  feet ;  hundreds  of  them  are  over  23,000  feet.  In  the  glacier 
basin  explored  by  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi's  expedition  there  are  more 
than  twenty-five  peaks  above  23,000  feet. 

A  great  part  of  the  Himalaya  is  shut  in  by  territories  which  are 
closed  to  the  European.     Other  parts  of  the  highest  chains  are  at  a 


The  Himalaya.  3 

great  distance  from  human  habitation,  secluded  in  a  wilderness  where 
no  assistance  or  supplies  are  to  be  had.  Many  of  the  valleys  are  nearly 
desert  for  hundreds  of  miles,  with  sparse  and  squahd  villages,  where 
a  scanty  pojJulation  just  contrives  to  wrest  a  bare  living  from  the  arid 
stony  waste.  The  topographical  work  of  the  Trigonometrical  Survey 
of  India  was  carried  out  in  the  face  of  these  obstacles.  The  history 
of  privations  endured,  dangers  faced  and  difficulties  daily  encountered 
and  surmounted  in  sohtude  by  the  brave  officers  who  carried  out  this 
work  has  never  been  written.  The  work  itself  was  not  and  could  not  be 
definitive  or  complete.  The  vast  region  is  only  known  to  us  in  its  main 
outlines,  nor  is  there  one  single  mountain  group  where  the  mountaineer, 
if  possessed  of  the  knowledge  befitting  an  explorer,  may  not  fill  up  blank 
spaces  in  the  map,  complete  it  with  fresh  data  and  correct  its  approxi- 
mate outhne. 

Colonel  S.  G.  Burrard  and  H.  H.  Hayden,  the  Directors  of  the 
Trigonometrical  and  the  Geological  Surveys  of  India,  have  published 
in  recent  years  a  brief  summary  of  the  geographical  and  geological 
knowledge  which  we  now  possess  with  regard  to  the  Himalaya.^  Here 
we  find  a  list  of  mountains  whose  position  and  height  have  been 
accurately  fixed  by  triangulation.  Seventy-five  of  them  are  above 
24,000  feet,  forty-eight  are  above  25,000  feet,  sixteen  are  above 
26,000  feet,  five  are  above  27,000  feet  and  three  above  28,000  feet. 

We  are  not  likely  to  discover  a  higher  peak  than  Mount  Everest, 
but  there  certainly  exist  in  the  Himalaya  a  great  many  peaks  which 
have  not  yet  been  measured  and  which  are  between  25,000  and 
27,000  feet  in  height.  Every  exploring  party  brings  a  new  one  under 
our  notice.  The  expedition  of  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  took  the 
altitude  of  a  mountain  which  reached  to  over  27,000  feet,  in  addition 
to  fifteen  peaks,  now  measured  for  the  first  time,  all  above  23,000  feet 
and  all  included  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Baltoro  and  Godwin  Austen 
glaciers.  - 

The  principal  peaks,  those  of  27,000  feet  and  over,  are  not  grouped 
together  in  one  range,  but  are  dispersed  along  the  whole  system  of  the 

'  Col.  S.  G.  Burrard  and  H.  H.  Hayden,  A  Sketch  of  the  Geography  and  Geology  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains  and  Tibet.     Calcutta  1907-1909. 

*  In  the  same  summer  Dr.  T.  G.  Longstaff  discovered  an  imposing  peak  at  the  head  of  the 
Siachen  glacier,  then  explored  for  the  first  time.  He  reckoned  it  to  bo  over  27,000  feet  high ; 
but  later  measurements  made  by  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  in  1911  prove  it  to  be  only  24,489  feet 
( ±  100  feet). 

(9221)  A  2 


4  Chai)t(.'r  I. 

Himalaya.  Thus  the  three  highest  mountains  on  the  globe  are  placed 
one  in  the  central,  one  in  the  western  and  one  in  the  eastern  Himalaya. 
A  brief  survey  of  the  various  ranges  will  give  me  an  opportunity 
to  enumerate  the  chief  mountaineering  and  exploring  expeditions  which 
have  been  undertaken  in  the  Himalaya,  and  will  make  clear  the  reasons 
which  guided  His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  in  his 
selection  of  the  field  for  his  expedition.^ 


DARJILING    AND    KINCHrNJUNOA. 


Kinchinjunga,  the  third  highest  peak  on  the  earth  (28,150  feet), 
rises  upon  the  borders  between  Nepaul  and  Sikkim,  where  the  central 
and  eastern  Himalaya  meet.  It  is  fairly  easy  to  reach  the  glaciers, 
wliich  are  only  about  45  miles  from  DarjiUng,  the  well-known  climatic 
station  where  numerous  English  officers  and  ci\aHans  seek  health  and 
rest  from  the  burning  plains  in  summer.  The  vallejs  wliich  slope  up 
from  Darjihng  into  the  mountains  are  covered  with  luxuriant  forests, 
whose  aspect  is  tropical  even  at  a  great  height  and  where  Alpine  jilants 


'  In  the  following  pages  I  liave  not  taken  note  of  several  ascents  to  great  heights  which 
were  made  at  various  points  by  the  topographers  of  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India.  I 
shall  have  occasion  to  quote  them  further  on  in  the  course  of  this  work  in  a  critical  analysis  of 
the  statistics  of  the  ascents  to  exceptional  heights. 


The  Himalaya.  5 

reach  dimensions  undreamed  of  in  Europe — tlieir  marvellous  beauty 
lias  been  described  by  many  a  traveller.  This  wonderful  vegetation  is 
due  to  the  special  climate  of  the  region,  where  torrents  of  rain  fall 
throughout  the  very  months  of  summer  which  would  otherwise  be 
suitable  for  mountaineering.  The  fine  weather  begins  only  in  October, 
when  the  intense  cold  and  the  shortness  of  the  days  present  serious 
obstacles  to  any  attempt  at  an  ascent  above  23,000  feet. 


THE   KABRII,    SEEN   FROM   NEAR  JONGRI,    SIKKIM    (ABOUT    15,(XK)    FEET). 

Nevertheless,  it  was  upon  a  peak  of  this  chain,  the  Kabru,  that  the 
greatest  height  on  record  had  been  reached  before  the  Duke  of  the 
Abruzzi's  expedition.  In  October,  1907,  two  Norwegians,  C.  W. 
Eubenson  and  Monrad  Aas,  chmbed  this  mountain  nearly  to  the  summit, 
attaining  a  height  of  almost  24,000  feet.^  This  exploit  put  an  end  to 
the  long  controversy  among  mountaineers  as  to  the  credibihty  of  the 
assertion  of  W.  W.  Graham  to  the  effect  that  he  had  chmbed  the  Kabru 
to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  summit  in  1883. 

Kinchinjunga  itself  was  explored  on  all  its  slopes  in  the  year  1899 
by  an  expedition  led  by  D.  W.  Freshfield.  - 

'  C.  W.  RrBENSON,  An  Ascent  of  Knhru.     Alpine  Jourmd  24,  1908.  p.  63. 
*  D.  W.  Freshfield,  Round  Kangchenjunga.     London  1903.     Illustrated  by  Vittorio  Sella. 
(9221)  A  3 


6  Chajjter  I. 

In  this  expedition  Yittorio  Sella  took  part  and  has  given  us  photo- 
graphs of  the  whole  of  that  beautiful  group.  Although  Freshfield 
abstains  from  any  absolute  declaration  of  the  impossibility  of  ascending 
Kinchinjunga,  and  although  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  plan  a  route  by 
which  an  attempt  might  be  made,  still  he  does  not  hazard  any  forecast 
as  to  the  probabilities  of  success.  As  seen  in  Sella's  photographs, 
Kinchinjunga  certainly  does  not  appear  to  offer  any  very  obvious  route 
for  an  easy  ascent — an  essential  condition  to  the  attainment  of  the 
greatest  heights. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  Sikkim  Himalaya  does  not  hold  out  good 
chances  for  such  an  ascent.  Neither  does  it  offer  many  opportunities 
of  geographical  discovery  in  the  event  of  unsuccess  in  mountaineering, 
should  an  expedition  ever  follow  on  the  track  of  so  competent  and 
observant  an  explorer  as  Freshfield. 

Westward  of  Sikkim  lies  the  Central  Himalaya,  between  Nepaul  to 
the  south  and  Tibet  to  the  north.  These  states  have  long  been  for- 
bidden country  to  the  European,  by  the  desire  of  their  own  rulers  as 
well  as  by  the  conventions  and  mutual  undertakings  of  England  and 
Russia.  This  portion  of  the  Himalaya  comprises  Mount  Everest,  the 
highest  ])eak  in  the  world,  whose  altitude  (29,002  feet)  was  calculated 
by  triangulation  in  1852.  Since  that  date  active  exploration  on  either 
side  of  the  ranges  has  revealed  no  other  momitain  of  equal  or  greater 
height,  and  as  time  goes  on  the  discovery  of  such  a  one  becomes  less 
and  less  probable. 

Although  no  topograj^her  has  been  able  to  get  within  80  miles  of 
the  Nepaul  range,  nevertheless  Burrard's  list  gives  the  measurements 
of  twenty-five  peaks  above  24,000  feet,  nineteen  of  which  are  above 
25,000  feet,  eight  above  26,000  feet  and  two  above  27,000  feet,  beside 
Mount  Everest,  which  is  above  29,000  feet.^ 

This  is  indubitably  the  part  of  the  Himalaya  where  the  most 
important  geographical  discoveries  still  remain  to  be  made.  So  long, 
however,  as  the  poUtical  conditions  remain  unchanged  there  is  no  hope 
for  the  explorer  in  that  direction. 


1  Among  the  panoramas  reproduced  for  the  present  work  there  is  one  (Panorama  A)  of  the 
Nepaulese  Himalaya  taken  by  Sella  when  he  was  on  the  borders  of  Sikkim  and  Nepaul  with  Fresh- 
field's  expedition.  Beside  giving  a  picture,  however  dimmed  by  distance,  of  the  highest  mountain 
range  in  the  world,  this  panorama  permits  the  mountaineer  to  compare  the  general  outline  and 
features  of  the  eastern  Himalaya  with  those  of  the  Karakoram. 


The  Himalaya.  7 

Further  to  the  west,  in  the  corner  between  Nepaul,  Kashmir  and 
Tibet,  lies  the  Himalaya  of  Kumaun  and  Gahrwal.  This  important 
group  is  easy  of  access  from  the  plain,  and  not  far  from  good  base-stations 
for  supphes.  Hence  its  pleasant  and  well-wooded  valleys  are  frequently 
sought  out  by  travellers  and  mountaineers.  It  is  said  that  the  name 
Himalaya,  or  Himaleh,  "  abode  of  the  snow,"  or  "  abode  of  winter,'"' 


THE  EVEREST  OROPP,  FROM  CHOONJERMA  LA,  NEPAUL  (14,770  FEET).   TAKEN  BY 

TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 

had  its  origin  among  the  snow-capped  ranges  of  Gahrwal.  Around 
the  twin  peaks  of  Nanda  Devi,  which  are  between  25,000  and  26,000  feet, 
cluster  lower  peaks,  upon  one  of  which.  Mount  Kamet,  the  brothers 
H.  and  R.  Schlagintweit  reached  a  height  of  22,260  feet  in  the  year 
1855.1  jj^  1383  ■\Y  \y  Graham  made  several  ascents  in  this  group, 
reaching  23,185  feet  on  Dunagiri^  ;  and  in  1907  Dr.  T.  G.  Longstaf! 
reached  the  summit  of  Trisul,  23,406  feet.* 

'  Hermann  von   ScHXAOlNTWErr-SAKUNLCNSKl,   Reisen  in  Indien  und  Hochasien.      Jena 
1869-1880.     4  vols. 

'  W.  W.  Graham,  Travel  and  Ascents  in  the  Himalaya.   Proc.  Soy.  Geog.  Soc.  VI,  1884,  p.  429. 

•  T.  G.  LoNGSTAFF,  A  Mountaineering  Expedition  to  the  Himalaya  of  Gahncal.     Geog.  Jour. 
31,  1908,  p.  361  ;   and  Mountaineering  in  Gahnval.     Alp.  Jour.  24,  1908,  p.  107. 

(9221)  A  4 


8  Cliaj)tc'r   I. 

To  the  west  of  GahrwaJ  the  range  assumes  the  name  of  the  Punjab 
Himalaya,  and  rises  toward  the  centre  to  a  dominant  group  of  peaks 
known  as  the  Nun  Kun,  with  twin  peaks  of  about  23,400  feet.  In  1906 
Dr.  Hunter  Workman  and  Mrs.  Bullock  Workman  made  an  expedition 
in  this  range,  in  the  course  of  which  Mrs.  Workman  reached  an  altitude 
of  23,300  feet. ' 

Beyond  Nun  Kun  the  Himalaya  skirts  the  north  side  of  the  plateau 
of  Kashmir,  then  seems  suddenly  to  come  to  an  end,  as  if  in  one  last 
magnificent  effort,  in  the  great  peak  of  Djamirai,  better  known  as 
Nanga  Parbat  (26,620  feet).  This  superb  mountain  gains  in  grandeur 
by  its  splendid  isolation,  as  there  is  no  rival  in  the  surrounding  region. 
It  can  be  seen  from  many  points  in  Kashmir  and  in  Afghanistan,  and 
even  as  far  off  as  near  Peshawar  ;  and  after  Kiuchinjuuga,  at  the  other 
extremity  of  the  Himalaya,  is  probably  the  most  familiar  peak  in 
India. 

The  name  of  Nanga  Parbat  will  always  be  associated  with  that  of 
A.  F.  Mummery,  one  of  the  finest  mountaineers  of  our  day,  who  lost 
his  life  on  this  mountain  in  1895.  He  had  reached  about  20,000  feet 
on  the  north-west  slope  of  the  mountain,  and  had  given  up  all  idea  of 
attempting  to  continue  the  ascent  by  that  route,  which  proved  too 
difficult.  He  was  killed  by  an  avalanche  while  endeavouring  to  reach 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  mountain. 

All  those  who  have  seen  Nanga  Parbat  from  near  speak  of  it  as 
apparently  almost  inaccessible,  owing  to  the  forbidding  rock  precipices 
from  which  hang  steep  and  dangerous  glaciers.-  In  the  event  of  a 
failure  upon  Nanga  Parbat  there  are  no  other  peaks  of  great  altitude 
to  fall  back  upon  in  the  neighbourhood,  nor  would  important  geo- 
graphical discoveries  reward  research  in  that  region. 

The  Punjab  Himalaya,  as  we  have  seen,  contains  few  peaks  of  great 
height,  but  to  the  north  of  it  stretches  a  huge  system  of  mountains 
known  as  the  Karakoram.  Of  all  the  Himalayan  regions  not  absolutely 
closed  to  European  enterprise,  this  is  certainly  the  one  that  offers  the 
greatest  hope  of  useful  work  to  the  geographer,  the  naturalist  and  the 
mountaineer. 

utl^k  Lib  -  ^  W.  HtJNTER  and  F.  Bullock  Workman,  Peaks  and  Glaciers  oj  the  Nun  Kun.     London  1909. 
'  See  J.  Norman  Collie,  Climbing  on  the  Himalaya  etc.    Edinburgh  1902,  where  the  story 
of  the  Mummery  catastrophe  is  told  ;    also  C.  G.  Bruce,  Twenty  Years  in  the  Himalaya.      London 
1910. 


The  Himalaya.  9 

It  is  separated  from  the  Himalaya  proper  by  the  upper  course  of 
the  Indus,  and  lies  nearly  200  miles  from  the  capital  of  Kashmir.  Thus 
it  is  accessible  only  to  expeditions  organized  for  distant  exploration, 
and  on  this  account  it  has  been  seldom  ^^sited — the  greater  number 
of  the  higher  valleys  and  glaciers  are  to  this  day  unexplored. 

Karakoram  in  Tibetan  means  "  black  gravel."  The  name  was  noted 
and  introduced  by  AV.  Moorcroft,  the  first  European  explorer  to  cross 
the  chain,  about  1820.^  The  word  Mustagh,  or  "ice  moimtain,"  was 
subsequently  suggested  as  more  appropriate.  The  suggestion,  however, 
was  not  adopted,  because  in  Chinese  Turkestan  aU  snow  peaks  are  called 
Mustagh. 

I  will  barely  hint  at  the  discussion  as  to  whether  the  Karakoram 
should  be  included,  geographically  speaking,  in  the  Himalaya,  or 
whether  it  should  be  treated  as  a  separate  mountain  system.  The 
latter  is  the  opinion  of  the  Schlagintweits,  of  Cunningham,  of  the 
Workmans,  etc.-  Burrard  would  include  in  the  Karakoram  system 
all  the  mountains  to  the  north  of  the  Indus.  The  Karakoram  is  usually 
distinguished  from  the  Hindu  Kush,  which  is  its  prolongation  to  the 
westward.^  In  this  direction  the  sources  of  the  Gilgit,  an  affluent  of 
the  Indus,  mark  the  boundary  between  the  two  chains.  Eastward  the 
Karakoram  range  is  bounded  by  the  sources  of  the  Shyok,  an  important 
stream  which,  after  a  long  and  winding  course  through  the  greater 
part  of  Baltistan,  flows  like  the  Gilgit  into  the  Indus.  Between 
these  boundaries  the  Karakoram  chain  stretches  for  about  450  miles. 

Some  of  the  greatest  glaciers  of  the  world  are  contained  in  the 
Karakoram  range.  In  no  part  of  the  Himalaya  do  we  find  such  a 
number  of  very  high  peaks  in  so  hmited  a  space.  Burrard  counts  forty- 
two  peaks  of  and  above  24,000  feet  in  the  whole  of  the  Himalaya  proper 
from  Sikkim  to  Kashmir,  and  thirty-three  in  the  Karakoram  system 
alone  (twenty-nine  if  we  do  not  include  in  this  system  the  peaks  farther 
to  the  north).  These  mountains  are  grouped  around  four  great  glaciers 
— the  Chogo  Lungma,  the  Hispar,  the  Biafo  and  the  Baltoro.  A  fifth 
and  still  larger  glacier    basin,  the  Siachen,  was  explored  for  the  first 

'  W.  Moorcroft  and  G.  Trebeck,  TraveU  in  the  Himalayan  Provinces  of  Hindustan,  etc. 
Ed.  by  H.  Hayman  Wilson.     London  1841.     2  vols. 

*  ScHLAGLNTNVEiT,  Op.  cit.  /  SiR  A.  Ctnxisgham,  LaJtilc  and  Surrounding  Countries.  London 
1854  ;   VV.  Hunter  and  F.  Bullock  Workjian,  In  the  Ice  WorUl  of  Himalaya.     London  1901. 

'  This  is  the  opinion  of  Col.  Godwin  Austen  (Proc.  Poy.  Geog.  Soc.  y.S.  5,  1883,  p.  610)  ;  and 
it  is  the  division  adopted  by  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India  (BrBRARD,  op.  cit.). 


10  Chapter  I. 

time  by  Dr.  Loiigstaff  during  the  same  summer  in  which  the  Duke  of 
the  Abruzzi  went  to  the  Karakoram.  The  Chogo  Lungma  and  the  Hispar 
form  the  centre  of  the  mountain  groups  of  Kunjut  and  Hunza,  with 
seven  peaks  between  24,000  and  25,500  feet.  This  is  the  part  of  the 
Karakoram  which  was  first  known  and  has  most  often  been  explored 
since — by  G.  T.  Vigne  in  1835,  by  Dr.  Falconer  in  1841,  by  Dr.  Thomson 
in  1847-48  and  by  A.  Schlagintweit  in  1856.  ^  In  1892  Sir  Martin 
Conway  traversed  for  the  first  time  and  surveyed  in  their  entire  length 
the  Hispar  and  Biafo  glaciers.-  The  Chogo  Lungma  basin  was  the 
field  of  several  of  the  expeditions  of  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Workman,  whom 
I  have  already  mentioned.  With  remarkable  perseverance  thev 
returned  to  the  same  region  in  four  different  summers — in  1899,  1902, 
1903  and  1908.  In  the  course  of  these  expeditions  Dr.  Workman 
reached  a  height  of  about  23,400  feet  on  the  ridge  of  a  peak  at  the  head 
of  the  Chogo  Lungma  glacier.  ^ 

Eastward  of  the  mountains  of  Hunza  lies  the  Karakoram  proper, 
which  includes  the  Baltoro  glacier,  and  contains  eight  peaks  between 
25,110  and  28,250  feet  known  before  the  Duke's  expedition.  Along 
the  single  gigantic  valley  down  which  flow  the  Baltoro  and  its  affluents, 
tower  a  series  of  peaks  comprising  K-,  the  second  highest  mountain 
in  the  world  (28,250  feet)  ;  the  four  Gasherbrums,  between  26,000  and 
26,470  feet ;  the  two  Masherbrums,  over  26,500  feet ;  the  Bride  Peak, 
25,110  feet ;  and  the  three  summits  of  the  Broad  Peak,  whose  altitudes 
(27,132,  26,188  and  26,022  feet)  have  been  ascertained  for  the  first  time 
by  the  Duke's  exj^edition.     I  speak  of  the  higher  peaks  only. 

The  Baltoro  glacier  was  first  discovered  and  its  lower  portion 
explored  by  Colonel  Godwin  Austen  in  the  course  of  his  topographical 
campaign  in  the  Karakoram  (1860-61),  which  yielded  such  important 
geographical  results.^     The  glacier  was  again  visited  in  1886  by  Colonel 

'  G.  T.  Vigne,  Travels  in  Kashmir,  L'lilak,  Iskardo.  etc.  London  1842.  2  vols.  ; 
H.  Falconer,  cited  by  I.  MtjRCHisoN,  Joiir.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  28,  1858,  p.  clxxxviii ;  T.  Thomson. 
Western  Himalaya  and  Thibet.  London  1852,  and  various  notes  in  Jour.  Roy.  Oeog.  Soc.  23,  1853, 
pp.  232,  318  ;   Schlagintweit,  op.  cit. 

"  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  Climbing  in  the  Himalayas.     London  1894.     2  vols. 

'  In  addition  to  their  numerous  articles  in  the  Geographical  Journal,  Alpine  Journal  and  other 
periodicals  of  geography  and  mountaineering,  W.  Hunter  Workm^vn  and  F.  Bullock  Workman 
have  given  an  account  of  their  expeditions  in  the  following  works  :  In  the  Ice-Worhl  of  Himalaya. 
London  1901  ;  Ice-bound  Heights  of  the  Mustagh.  London  1908  ;  Peaks  and  Glaciers  of  the 
Nun  Kun.     London  1909  ;   The  Call  of  the  Srwwy  Hispar.     London  1910. 

■*  Lieut. -Col.  Godwin  Austen,  The  Glaciers  of  the  Mustagh  Range.  Proc.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  8, 
1863,  p.  34  :  and  Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  34,  1864,  p.  19. 


The  Himalaya. 


11 


Sir  Francis  Younghusband.  ^  It  was  not,  liowever,  until  the  memorable 
expedition  of  Sir  Martin  Conway  in  1892  that  it  was  traversed  in  its 
whole  length  and  surveyed,  as  well  as  its  rivals,  the  Hispar  and  Biafo 
glaciers.^     The  Baltoro  glacier  is  divided  into  two  branches  in  its  upper 


k'  from  the  south. 

course.  The  south-eastern  branch  preserves  the  name  Baltoro,  and 
this  part  alone  had  been  explored  by  Sir  Martin  Conway.  The  other 
arm,  known  as  the  Godwin  Austen  glacier,  flows  round  the  base  of  the 
south  face  of  K-,  and  had  been  visited  in  1902  by  an  expedition  led 
by  the  Enghsh  mountaineer  0.  Eckenstein,  accompanied  by  two 
Enghshmen,  A.  E.  Crowley  and  G.  Knowles,  two  Austrians,  Drs.  H. 
Pfaiml  and  V.  Wessely,  and  the  Swiss  doctor,  .J.   J.  Guillarmod,  who 


'  Sm  V.  E.  YouNOHUSBAND,  A  Journey  across  Central  Asia,  from  Manchuria  and  Peking  to 
Kashmir,  ox-er  the  Mustagh  Pass.     Proc.  Boy.  Geog.  Soc.  K.S.  10,  1S88,  p.  485. 
*  Sib  V\'.  M.  (Conway,  op.  cit. 


12  Chapter  I. 

wrote  an  account  of  the  undertaking.^  This  was  tlic  only  expedition 
which  had  had  a  near  view  of  K-  before  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi.  Of 
all  the  numerous  peaks  which  crowd  along  the  sides  of  the  Baltoro, 
two  alone  had  been  climbed,  and  both  by  Sir  Martin  Conway,  in  1892 — 
Cr)'stal  Peak,  19,400  feet,  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  glacier,  and  a 
minor  peak  of  the  Golden  Throne  group,  situated  near  the  upper  end 
of  the  Baltoro  and  26,200  feet  high,  which  Conway  named  Pioneer 
Peak. 

The  basin  of  the  Baltoro  glacier  appeared  by  all  accounts  to  be  the 
most  suited  to  a  mountaineering  and  exploring  expedition  which 
proposed  as  its  aim  the  investigation  of  the  problem  concerning  the 
possibility  of  ascending  the  highest  peaks.  Here  we  have  K-,  the 
highest  mountain  at  present  open  to  Europeans  to  attempt,  only 
750  feet  lower  than  Moimt  Everest.-  The  only  expedition  which  had 
ever  had  a  near  view  of  it  was  of  opinion  that  there  were  chances  of 
success,  and  Guillarmod  expressed  himself  as  decidedly  inclined  to 
consider  the  ascent  a  feasible  one.  Furthermore,  K-  is  surrounded  by 
numerous  peaks  ranging  from  26,000  to  27,000  feet,  far  above  the  highest 
point  yet  reached  upon  any  mountain  ;  and  there  seemed  a  reasonable 
probability  that  some  one  of  these  might  be  fairly  accessible.  Last 
but  not  least,  the  region  had  been  visited  by  but  a  single  expedition, 
and  that  not  specially  equipped  for  topographical  work.  The  greater 
part  of  the  valleys  and  glaciers  were  as  yet  untrodden  by  man.  Whole 
mountain  ranges  were  still  indicated  on  the  map  by  a  few  points  only, 
and  it  was  permissible  for  the  geographer  to  hope  to  fill  up  these  gaps. 

I  may  add  a  few  words  to  explain  the  strange  designation  of  the 
second  highest  peak  in  the  world,  K'-,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  the  system  of  nomenclature  of  the  Trigonometrical 
Survey  of  India.  When  the  latter  began  its  labours  in  the  Himalaya 
it  was  confronted  with  the  problem  of  how  to  designate  individually 

*  Dr.  J.  Jacot  Guillakmod,  Six  mots  dans  V Hinmlaya.  Neuchatel,  no  date.  Guillarmod 
puts  K'  and  the  Baltoro  basin  in  the  Hindu  Kush,  though  the  chain  usually  designated  by  this 
name  is  situated,  as  we  have  seen,  about  250  miles  farther  to  the  west.  We  have  also  two  excellent 
shorter  accounts  of  the  expedition  by  Pfannl,  Von  meiner  Reise  ziim  K  '  in  den  Bergen  Baltistans, 
Mitt,  der  Geogr.  Ges.  Wien,  47,  1904,  p.  247,  and  Zeit.  d.  Deut.  ii.  Oest.  Alpenvereins,  35,  1904, 
p.  88. 

'  The  designation  of  K  -  as  the  second  highest  mountain  in  the  world  must  not  be  taken  too 
literally.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  less  than  a  hundred  feet  higher  than  Kinchinjunga,  and  the 
calculations  cannot  yet  be  made  with  such  exactness  as  to  eliminate  all  chances  of  error.  There 
is  still  the  possibility  that  Kinchinjunga  may  prove  to  be  the  higher  of  the  two. 


The  Himalaya.  13 

the  thousands  of  important  peaks  which  had  no  name.  Few  and  far 
between  are  those  upon  which  the  natives  living  at  the  foot  of  the  ranges 
have  felt  the  necessity  of  bestowing  a  name.  Of  the  seventy-five  peaks 
given  in  Burrard's  Ust,  only  nineteen  have  native  names.  Further- 
more, the  tribes  on  the  different  sides  of  the  great  chains  belong  to 
different  races  and  speak  different  languages,  and  have  httle  intercourse 
with  one  another.  Hence  the  few  names  which  do  exist  are  different 
on  the  north  and  on  the  south  side  of  the  same  mountain. 

Colonel  Montgomerie,  under  whose  direction  the  work  of  triangula- 
tion  of  the  Himalaya  began,  invented  an  ingenious  scheme  of  nomen- 
clature which  resembles  the  ancient  system  of  designating  the  heavenly 
bodies,  based  upon  the  grouping  of  them  into  constellations.  He 
designated  the  Karakoram  region  by  the  letter  K,  and  each  peak  by 
the  names  K^,  K^,  K^,  etc.  The  advantages  of  this  method  as  to 
clearness  and  simplicity  are  obvious,  had  it  only  been  adopted  through- 
out the  Himalaya.  Unfortunately,  other  topographers  proceeded  to  give 
the  initial  letters  of  their  own  names  to  the  peaks  which  they  subsequently 
measured,  and  hence  arose  great  confusion  owing  to  different  observers 
ha\dng  the  same  initial  letter  or  name. 

Burrard's  view  is  that  it  is  better  for  the  present  to  designate  the 
peaks  simply  by  their  altitude  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  them 
are  indicated  in  this  manner  only.  This  system  has  been  followed  by 
the  Duke  in  his  map  of  the  region  he  explored,  with  regard  to  the  peaks 
measured  by  his  expedition. 

The  only  non-indigenous  name  adopted  by  the  Trigonometrical 
Bureau  of  India  is  that  of  Everest  for  the  highest  peak,  which  was  at 
first  indicated  as  Peak  XV;  but  in  the  case  of  K^  the  name  Godwin 
Austen,  proposed  in  1888  by  General  Wallcer  in  recognition  of  the  merits 
of  the  great  Himalayan  topographer,  has  been  rejected.  Nor  is  it  lilcely 
that  a  better  fate  awaits  any  of  the  numerous  names  which  travellers 
have  collected  from  among  the  natives  of  Baltistan. 


CHAPTER    II. 


FROM    MARSEILLES    TO    SRINAGAR. 

Preparations  for  the  Expedition.  —  Alpine  Guides  and  Porters.  —  The  Most  Favourable  Season. 

—  Equipment.  —  From  Marseilles  to  Bombay.  —  The  Railway  Journey.  —  Rawal  Pindi. 

—  Ekkas  and  Tongas. — The  Road  to  Kashmir. — The  Jhclum  Valley.  —  The  Kashmir 
Custom  House.  —  Uri.  • —  The  Gorge  of  Basmagul.  —  Baramula.  —  Kashmir.  —  Lacustrian 
Theories  and  Legends.  —  Disagreements  among  Geologists.  —  Arrival  at  Srinagar. 


His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke 
of  the  Abruzzi  prepared  his  ex- 
pedition between  February  and 
March,  1909.  He  invited  to  take 
part  in  it  his  aide  -de -  camp, 
Marchese  Federico  Negrotto,  Ship's 
Lieutenant  R.I.N. ,  whom  he 
entrusted  with  the  topograjjhical 
work  of  the  expedition  ;  Vittorio 
Sella,  whose  task  was  to  illus- 
trate by  photography  the  scenes 
through  which  the  expedition 
should  pass  ;  and  myself  as 
physician  and  to  collect  natural 
history  specimens  so  far  as  might 
be  possible  on  so  rapid  a  march.  The  number  of  members  of  the 
expedition  was  limited  by  the  great  distance  which  would  have  to  be 
traversed  beyond  the  limits  of  civilized  means  of  communication,  the 
difficulties  of  transport  to  be  expected  in  the  mountains,  and  the 
importance  of  light  marching  order  to  make  the  most  of  the  brief 
season  during  which  mountaineering  would  be  possible.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  seemed  advisable  to  bring  a  fair  number  of  European  guides 
and  porters,  as  the  Duke's  African  experience  warned  him  not  to  count 


P^roni  Marseilles  to  Srina":ar.  ]5 


*->' 


over  much  upon  native  portage  in  the  high  mountain  region — all  the 
more  as  the  distances  to  be  crossed  upon  the  ice  were  infinitely  longer 
in  the  Karakoram  than  in  the  Ruwenzori  range. 

For  these  reasons  seven  Italian  guides  and  porters  were  chosen 
from  Courmayeur,  in  the  valley  of  Aosta.  First,  Joseph  Petigax,  the 
devoted  and  faithful  companion  of  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  upon  all 
his  expeditions,  together  with  his  son,  Laurent,  who  had  abeady  been 
tried  with  his  father  in  the  Ruwenzori  expedition.  Both  father  and 
son  had  been  guides  to  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Workman  in  their  exploration  of 
the  Chogo  Lungma  glacier  of  the  Karakoram  in  1903.  The  two  other 
guides,  the  brothers  Alexis  and  Henri  Brocherel,  were  also  famihar 
with  Himalayan  travel,  as  they  had  been  on  two  expeditions  in  the 
Kumaun-Gahrwal  with  Dr.  Longstaff,  exploring  in  1905  the  Nanda 
Devi  group  and  the  Gurla  Mandhata,  and  in  1907  acting  as  guides  to 
LongstafE  in  his  fine  ascent  of  Trisul  (23,406  feet).  To  these  we  must 
add  three  sturdy  porters,  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  glaciers  of 
Mont  Blanc — Emil  Brocherel,  Albert  Savoie  and  Ernest  Bareux.  As  on 
former  occasions.  Sella  again  brought  with  him  Erminio  Botta,  at  once 
assistant-photographer,  guide  and  porter,  and  deeply  versed  in  camp 
life  and  in  foreign  mountaineering. 

The  most  important  consideration  for  any  Alpine  expedition, 
especially  in  remote  countries,  is  the  choice  of  the  right  season.  The 
Karakoram  is  so  remote  from  the  plains  of  India  and  is  divided  from 
them  by  such  wide  and  high  mountain  ranges,  that  the  climatic  seasons 
of  tropical  regions,  if  felt  at  all,  must  be  felt  in  greatly  modified  form. 
•Iiidging  from  the  experience  of  the  few  explorers  who  had  preceded  us, 
it  was  to  be  feared  that  the  chief  hindrance  to  mountaineering  in 
the  Karakoram  would  come  from  the  extreme  instability  of  the 
weather. 

In  1892  Sir  Martin  Conway,  exploring  the  three  main  glaciers  of  the 
Karakoram  between  May  and  the  beginning  of  September,  experienced 
hopelessly  bad  weather,  never  having  more  than  four  consecutive  fine 
days.  It  was  not  until  September  that  the  weather  became  fair,  and 
this  improvement  was  attended  by  intense  cold,  high  wind  and  short 
days. 

During  their  repeated  expeditions  to  the  western  Karakoram  and 
up  the  Chogo  Lungma,  Hispar  and  Biafo  glaciers,  the  Workmans 
experienced  steady  bad  weather  throughout  July  and  August,  with  the 


ic  Chapter  II. 

exception  of  their  last  journey  in  1908,  when  the  weather  was  excep- 
tionally favourable,  fine  and  warm. 

The  expedition  of  Eckenstein,  Pfannl  and  Guillarmod  in  1902  found 
their  greatest  obstacle  in  the  extremely  bad  weather  from  June  to 
August.     In  June  only  they  had  a  few  short  intervals  of  fair  weather. 

The  conclusion  apparently  to  be  drawn  from  these  data  was  that 
the  best  chance  would  be  to  get  upon  the  spot  very  early,  quite  at  the 
beginning  of  June.  At  that  season  the  mountains  would  not  be  free 
from  the  winter  and  spring  snow,  but  we  could  at  least  hope  for  longer 
periods  of  fine  weather,  and  in  any  case  take  advantage  of  the  entire 
summer  season.     This  was  the  plan  which  the  Duke  adopted. 

Time  was  short  to  make  the  necessary  preparations  for  so  early  a 
start.  However,  thanks  to  the  Duke's  forethought  and  order,  his  great 
experience  gained  in  former  expeditions,  his  careful  study  of  local 
conditions  and  his  methodical  system  of  work,  everything  was  actually 
ready  in  time.  The  following  narrative  will  show  how  perfectly  suited 
his  ecjuipment  was  to  the  end  in  view,  and  how  great  a  part  this  fact 
played  in  assuring  our  substantial  comfort  and  health  in  exceptional 
circumstances  of  surroundings  and  climate. 

As  on  his  former  expeditions,  the  Duke  carried  out  all  his  equipment 
from  Europe — camp  material,  personal  effects  and  supplies  for  the 
glacier  regions,  as  well  as  to  supplement  the  slender  resources  of  the 
valleys.  This  system  allows  of  a  far  more  careful  selection  of  each 
object,  greater  attention  in  putting  them  together  and  the  avoidance 
of  all  waste  of  time  in  order  to  procure  necessaries  along  the  way. 

I  need  not  go  into  details  regarding  the  careful  preparation  of  the 
Alpine  equipment,  including  personal  outfit,  as  well  as  ropes,  ice-axes, 
crampons,  nails,  cobbler's  tools,  etc.  The  expedition  was  well  suppHed 
with  meteorological  instruments  selected  and  corrected  with  great  care. 
Among  these  were  the  fragile  Fortin  mercury  barometers,  a  perpetual 
source  of  anxiety,  causing  elaborate  precautions  at  every  step.  The 
Duke  had  decided  to  adopt  Paganini's  photogrammetrical  system  for 
the  topographical  work.  This  method  had  already  been  used  in 
important  surveys,  both  in  Italy  and  in  other  countries. 

So  a  photogrammetric  camera  with  a  stock  of  plates  was  added 
to  Sella's  photographic  materials.  The  expedition  was  even  provided 
with  a  cinematograph  so  as  to  apply  the  most  modern  method  of  illus- 
tration. 


From  ^larsc'illc's  to  Srinagar.  17 

Medical  supplies  had  to  be  brought  to  minister  to  the  needs  of  the 
natives,  who  seldom  see  a  European  doctor  and  are  quite  out  of  reach 
of  civihzed  means  of  treatment.  On  the  other  hand  the  expedition 
possessed  only  two  guns,  and  these  were  brought  rather  on  the  chance 
of  getting  some  specimens  of  zoological  interest  than  with  any  intention 
of  sport. 

It  takes  at  least  two  months  to  get  from  Europe  to  the  Karakoram. 
Therefore,  the  whole  expedition,  inchiding  guides  and  porters,  sailed 
from  Marseilles  on  March  26th  by  the  P.  and  0.  steamer  Oceana.  Such 
of  the  supphes  as  had  been  purchased  in  England  had  already  been 
put  on  board  at  Tilbury. 

The  voyage  was  a  delightful  period  of  rest  after  the  several  weeks 
of  hard  work  at  equipment  and  other  preparations.  The  Mediterranean 
was  kind  to  us  for  the  four  days  of  our  crossing.  The  steamer  followed 
a  course  to  the  west  of  Sicily  in  order  not  to  pass  the  ill-starred  Straits 
of  Messina,  at  that  time  avoided  by  traffic  as  if  the  cataclvsm  of 
December  still  brooded  like  a  dark  menace  over  the  scene  of  devastation. 
Then  came  the  lazy  voyage  down  the  Suez  Canal,  where  you  gaze  from 
the  deck  over  the  boundless  desert  stretching  from  either  bank  ;  and 
the  hot  Red  Sea,  like  a  sudden  summer,  languid  and  enervating;  and, 
last  of  all,  the  Indian  Ocean,  whose  blue  waters  were  so  dark  as  to  be 
almost  black  and  perfectly  calm — not  a  ripple  to  foretell  the  monsoon 
which  would  rage  over  them  a  month  later. 

AVe  entered  Bombay  Harbour  at  daybreak  on  April  9th  (Good 
Friday).  The  lazy  mood  of  the  long  voyage  gave  way  suddenly  to  an 
impatient  desire  to  get  on.  A  few  hours  were  employed  in  superin- 
tending the  unlading  of  our  goods,  getting  them  through  the  Customs 
and  removing  them  to  the  station,  and  in  making  arrangements  with  banks 
and  agents.     This  done,  we  set  out  by  railway  early  in  the  afternoon. 

The  journey  to  Rawal  Pindi  takes  two  days,  crossing  towards  the 
north  of  the  Punjab,  with  a  wide  detour  so  as  to  leave  Rajputana  to  the 
cast.  Notwithstanding  special  contrivances  to  protect  the  carriages 
from  the  heat,  we  felt  them  to  be  Mke  furnaces.  Fleeting  visions  were 
vouchsafed  us  of  dusty  districts  parched  by  the  first  breath  of  summer ; 
villages  of  mud  and  rubble  huts,  with  threshing  floors  of  beaten 
earth  where  hump-backed  cattle  were  treading  out  the  ripe  harvest, 
driven  round  and  round  by  folk  clad  in  white  or  red  cotton,  the  men 
wearing  the  big  turban  of  India,  and  surrounded  by  tiny  naked  children 

(9221)  B 


18  Chapter  II. 

playing  in  the  dust.  Beside  the  great  herds  and  flocks  scattered  in  the 
wide  fields,  we  would  see  here  and  there  antelopes  fleeing  from  the  train, 
and  jackals  ;  and  the  whole  country  is  full  of  birds  of  all  sorts  and  many 
colours — splendid  peacocks,  crows,  biilliant  jays,  doves,  pigeons,  parrots, 
vultures,  hawks,  kingfishers,  and  many  others  impossible  to  distinguish 
from  an  express  train  in  motion.  The  trees  give  you  no  suggestion 
as  to  a  season.  One  is  covered  with  leaves,  another  full  of  blossoms 
without  foliage,  another  shows  bare  branches,  while  others  again  are 
bursting  into  full  leaf.  Temples  and  shrines,  old  forts  and  ruins,  pass 
rapidly  before  our  eyes,  especially  near  Guahor  and  Delhi,  names  which 
evoke  such  memories.  But  of  them,  alas  !  we  see  but  the  railway 
stations,  crowded  with  natives  of  every  conceivable  tribe,  wearing  every 
conceivable  sort  of  dress. 

Now  we  cross  the  Jhelum,  a  wide  river  where  many  herds  come  to 
the  watering-place  ;  and  the  way  winds  up  over  a  succession  of  terraces 
of  chalk  and  clay,  and  far  ofi  against  the  clear  sky  to  the  northward 
we  make  out  the  outline  of  the  snowy  mountains  which  bound  the  huge 
plain  of  India.  This  is  the  Pir  Panjal  range,  a  branch  of  the  Himalaya, 
which  forms  the  southern  barrier  of  the  table-land  of  Kashmir.  Farther 
on  this  range  is  hidden  by  nearer  and  lower  hills,  which  form  the  Siwalik 
chain.  Not  far  from  this  latter  our  railway  journey  ends  at  Rawal 
Pindi,  on  the  evening  of  Easter  Sunday,  April  11th.  The  train  rolls 
off,  carrying  with  it  Major  Lockhart,  of  the  Guides,  a  kind  English  officer 
who  had  interpreted  for  us  in  several  small  difficulties,  and  our  party 
finds  itself  stranded  on  the  platform  beside  a  huge  pile  of  cases,  crates 
and  bales,  which  had  filled  a  whole  van  and  whicli  contained  our  entire 
equipment.  There  are  132  pieces,  weighing  166  mannds  of  80  lbs.  each, 
giving  a  total  of  about  13,280  lbs. 

The  whole  of  this  luggage  had  to  be  got  up  to  Srinagar  by  the  carriage 
road,  which  was  finished  some  twenty  years  ago.  This  road  is  about 
200  miles  long,  and  goes  from  Rawal  Pindi  (1,700  feet  above  sea  level) 
along  the  Jhelum  Valley  to  the  high  plateau  of  Kashmir  (5,200  feet 
above  sea  level),  crossing  in  its  course  one  of  the  lower  spurs  at  a  height 
of  7,467  feet.i 

Next  morning  at  6  o'clock  we  all  met  at  the  station,  where  the  Duke 
had  made  an  appointment  with  the  agents,  porters  and  transport 
vehicles.     Pimctuality,  however,    is    extremely   relative    in    the    East. 

'  See  map  with  the  itinerary  of  the  expedition. 


From  Marseilles  to  Srinagar.  19 

The  agent  did  not  get  there  until  lialf-past  six.  About  half-an-hour 
later  turned  up  the  representative  of  Dhanjiboy,  a  Parsee  who  has 
a  monopoly  of  the  postal  service  and  of  carriages,  carts  and  horses 
between  Pindi  and  Srinagar.  Presently  the  ekkas  came  slowly  dribbhng 
in.  Ekkas  are  strange  vehicles.  The  body  is  in  the  shape  of  an  obverse 
pyramid,  which  stands  upon  an  axle  wnthout  any  springs,  between  two 
high  wheels.  The  shafts  diverge  so  that  their  farther  ends  are  about 
two  yards  apart.  All  ekkas  appear  to  be  centuries  old,  tumble-down  and 
decayed,  patched  up  here  and  there  and  everyw^here  with  bits  of  rotten 
string,  so  that  their  holding  together  at  all  appears  a  miracle.  And 
yet  they  usually  carry  some  ten  or  eleven  maunds  each  (between  800 


EKKAS. 


and  900  lbs.).  Only  three  or  fom-  rather  small  packages  can  find  room 
in  the  actual  body  of  the  ekka  ;  but  on  top  of  these  are  placed  two  long 
poles,  upon  which  is  piled  up  a  load  considerably  higher  than  the  top 
of  the  wheels,  giving  to  the  whole  a  most  extraordinary  aspect  of  in- 
stabihty.  The  elcka  is  drawn  by  a  single  horse,  and  does  the  whole 
distance  in  about  eight  days.  Carts  of  a  more  famihar  shape  are  also 
to  be  had,  and  are  stronger  and  hold  a  good  deal  more.  These  are 
drawn  by   oxen,  and  it  takes  them  over  a  fortnight  to  get  to  Srinagar. 

It  took  us  the  whole  morning  under  a  broiling  sun  to  count  all  of  the 
luggage  and  ascertain  that  nothing  was  missing,  and  then  to  proceed 
to  its  distribution  among  the  ekkas,  surrounded  the  whole  time  by  troops 
of  coolies  shouting  and  arguing  and  quarrelling  without  a  moment's 
respite.    The  division  of  the  luggage  into  loads  is  a  very  long  and  toilsome 

(9221)  B  2 


20  Chapter   II. 

job,  and  is  made  about  four  times  as  long  as  it  need  be  by  endless 
trying  and  trying  over  again.  Every  time  you  get  up  a  single  piece 
of  luggage  on  to  the  ekka  you  have  it  pulled  down  again  ;  then  you 
try  another  in  the  same  place,  and  then  a  third,  and  so  on.  At  last, 
between  1  and  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  whole  lot  of  ekkas,  with 
their  shapeless  loads  tied  and  roped  together,  were  driven  out  of  the 
station  and  assembled  in  the  courtyard  of  Dhanjibo}-,  ready  to  start 
at  night. 

We  now  had  a  few  hours  to  purchase  some  articles  at  Pindi.     The 
town   is   uninteresting — a   typical   cantonment   with   wide   roads,    well 


ON    THE   OUTSKIRTS   OF   RAWAL   PINDI. 


kept  and  lined  with  bungalows  and  gardens.  Nearly  every  afternoon 
a  ^'^olent  wind  blows  in  hot  gusts  for  a  few  hours,  raising'a  stifling  cloud 
of  dust  and  sand,  which  penetrates  through  every  crack  of  door  or 
window. 

By  daybreak  on  the  following  day  we  left  Pindi  in  two  landaus, 
which  were  drawn  at  a  sharp  trot  by  small  wirj^  horses.  On  the  outskirts 
of  the  town  in  front  of  the  verandahs  which  run  along  the  low  native 
houses  the  greater  part  of  the  population  were  sound  asleep  in  the 
street  upon  their  charjwys,  a  sort  of  bed  consisting  of  a  rectangular 
framework,  across  which  is  passed  to  and  fro  and  interwoven  a  narrow 
band  of  coarsely  woven  hemp,  thus  forming  a  couch  which  combines 
the    qiiaUties    of    simpUcity,    elasticity    and    strength.      The    general 


From  Marseilles  to  Sriiiagar. 


21 


impression  given  by  the  population  asleep  on  these  stretchers  along  the 
street  is  that  some  epidemic  is  raging  or  that  they  have  been  driven  from 
their  homes  by  an  earthquake. 

Our  personal  luggage  was  sent  on  ahead  upon  two-wheeled  vehicles 
of  the  native  variety  known  as  toiujas.  Tongas  are  two-horse  vehicles 
with  a  curved,  dome-shajjed  roof,  underneath  which  is  one  seat  parallel 
to  the  axle.  Upon  this  four  people  can  find  room,  two  sitting  in  front 
facing  the  horses  and  two  facing  backwards.  As  much  baggage  as 
possible  is  arranged  under  this  seat,  on  the  mudguards  and  on  the  sides 
of  the  roof,  tying  it  on  as  best  may  be. 


A   TONGA. 


Sir  Martin  Conway  observes  that  the  tonga  resembles  the  carpentKm 
of  the  ancient  Romans  and  Gauls,  as  shown  on  a  bas-rehef  at  Treves. 
In  spite  of  their  primitive  appearance,  tongas  are  in  many  ways  better 
suited  to  the  mountain  roads  than  the  heavy  carriages  Dhanjiboy 
provided  for  us. 

The  ancient  road  to  Kashmir,  which  was  followed  for  centuries  by 
the  Mogol  emperors  and  their  retinues,  of  whose  pomp  and  splendour 
such  a  living  picture  has  been  handed  down  to  us  by  Bermer,^  the 
French  physician  at  the  Court  of  Aurengzebe,  ran  to  the  east  of  the 
modern  route,  direct  to  Kashmir  from  the  plain  of  Jammu,  across  a 
pass  of  the  Pir  Panjal  range.  The  new  road,  which  was  opened  in 
1890,  reaches  the  Jhelum  valley  just   above  the  narrow  gorge  through 

'  FRASr90is  Bernikr,  Travels  in  the  Mogul  Empire  (A.D.  1656-1668).    London.  A.  Constable, 


1891. 


(9221) 


B  3 


22 


Clia])tc'r  II. 


which  the  latter  descends  from  the  plain  of  Kashmir,  and  crosses  the 
spur  of  mountains  which  form  the  western  barrier  of  this  gorge.  Near 
the  top  of  the  pass  (7,467  feet  high)  stands  Murree,  a  hill  station  which 
is  crowded  in  summer,  but  was  quite  peaceful  and  empty  when  we 

passed  through.  We  reached 
Murree  in  the  pouring  rain  and 
shivering  with  cold,  owing  to  the 
sudden  transition  from  the  hot 
suffocating  air  of  the  plain  to  the 
high  mountain  breezes.  The 
whole  of  the  descent  into  the 
Jhelum  valley  crosses  bands  of 
forest,  where  the  pale  green  of 
the  budding  deciduous  trees 
contrasts  with  the  dark  conifers 
and  with  the  lively  colouring  of 
the  flowering  bushes.  We  pro- 
ceeded rapidly  at  a  quick  trot  or 
gallop  even  at  the  steepest  points, 
thanks  to  the  relays  of  horses 
which  awaited  us  every  four  or  six 
miles,  according  to  the  steepness 
of  the  road.  Little  time  was  lost 
system  of  harness  is  extremely 
simple.  There  are  no  buckles,  no  straps  and  no  traces.  There  is  only  a 
bar  which  crosses  the  pole  and  fits  into  two  uprights  fixed  into  the 
saddles  of  the  harness. 

The  ragged  and  dirty  postilion  sits  beside  the  driver  and  with  the 
harsh  and  strident  notes  of  his  horn  clears  the  way  of  the  carts,  ekkas 
and  tongas  which  we  keep  meeting  and  passing. 

The  weather  had  cleared  by  the  time  we  reached  Kohala,  our  first 
stage,  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  at  a  distance  of  a  little  over  64  miles. 
Kohala  stands  about  300  feet  above  Pindi,  and  is  a  village  of  a  few 
houses,  which  rise  on  terraces  one  above  another  on  the  steep  right 
bank  of  the  Jhelum  at  the  inlet  of  the  narrow  gorge  through  which 
the  river  forces  its  way  out  from  the  mountains.  The  water  rushes 
fiercely  at  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  whirling  on  its  muddy  and  foaming 
waves   the   numberless    tree   tiiinks   which   are   sent   down   from   the 


THE    ROAD    TO    KASHMIR. 


in    changing    them,     because     the 


From  Marseilles  to  Srinaji-ar.  23 


t-.' 


mountains  to  Jhelum,  the  city  of  the  Punjab  plain,  which  has  given 
its  name  to  the  river. 

But  in  the  mountains  which  shelter  its  hallowed  sources  and 
throughout  Kashmir  the  name  of  the  river  is  Vehut,  a  corruption  of  the 
Sanscrit  Vitasta,  "  one  who  hastens,"  from  which  may  also  be  derived 
the  Hydaspes  of  the  Greek  historians.  This  river  formed  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  and  according  to  legend  the 
Macedonian  navigated  its  downward  course  to  the  Indus. 

At  Kohala  we  made  our  first  acquaintance  with  the  dak  bungalows 
or  guest-houses  which  are  found  at  every  stage  on  the  main  roads  and 
on  many  of  the  principal  bridle  paths.  They  are  all  built  on  the  same 
plan,  and  consist  of  a  ground  floor  only,  with  a  wide  verandah  on  to 
which  all  the  bedrooms  open.  Behind  each  bedroom  there  is  usually 
a  small  bathroom.  The  furniture  is  simple  but  clean.  On  the  high 
road  from  Piiidi  to  Kashmir  the  dak  bungalows  are  real  inns,  provided 
with  a  cook  and  with  supplies  and  servants,  so  that  travellers  need  not 
bring  a  large  amount  of  luggage.  Little  equipment  is  needed  beyond 
the  sleeping-bag  or  the  valise  which  holds  a  thin  mattress,  pillow, 
blanket  and  sheets,  all  of  which  are  equally  indispensable  for  railway 
travelling  in  India.  The  bedrooms  contaiji  charpoys,  upon  which  you 
spread  your  own  bedding. 

Immediately  outside  of  Kohala  the  road  crosses  the  Jhelum  upon 
the  bridge  which  marks  the  boundary  between  British  territory  and  the 
Protectorate  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir.  Here  an  official  dignitary  met 
us  to  bid  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  welcome  in  the  name  of  the  Maharajah. 
The  road  now  follows  the  left  slope  of  the  valley  at  a  height  of  from 
600  to  1,000  feet  above  the  river.  Upon  either  side  of  the  valley  are 
traces  of  alluvial  terraces  rising  one  above  another  to  a  great  height 
and  indicating  successive  upheavals  of  the  whole  mass,  while  the  river 
kept  on  its  way  at  its  original  level  by  progressive  erosion  of  its  bed.  ^ 

Some  20  miles  above  Kohala  two  large  tributary  valleys,  that  of 
Kunhar  or  Naim  Suk  and  that  of  Kishen  Ganga,  open  out  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Jhelum,  divided  one  from  another  by  a  range  of  hills  capped 
with  snow  peaks.  At  this  point,  before  the  high  road  was  built,  another 
path  came  into  the  Jhelum  valley  from  Abbottabad  in  the  Punjab.     At 

'  K.  Oestreich,  Die  Tdler  des  nordwestlichen  Himalaya.  Pelermann's  Mitt,  Ergdnzungsheft 
155,  1906.  An  interesting  geological  monograph,  tlie  fruit  of  observations  made  by  the  autlior 
while  accompanying  the  Workman  expedition  of  1902. 

(9221)  B  4 


24  Chapter   II. 

its  point  of  confluence  with  the  Kishcn  Ganga  the  Jhelum  valley 
suddenly  changes  its  course,  doubhng  back  at  a  sharp  angle  round  the 
end  of  the  spur  of  hills  on  its  left  side  and  rising  south-eastward  with 
an  increasing  deflection  towards  the  east.  The  valley  of  the  Kishen 
Ganga  goes  on  in  the  direction  in  which  we  had  hitherto  followed  up 
the  Jhelum,  towards  the  north,  so  that  at  this  junction  you  feel  as  if  the 
road  had  left  the  main  valley  to  follow  up  an  affluent.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  Oestreich  questions  whether  it  would  not  be  more  correct  to  regard 
the  Jhehim  as  a  tributary  of  the  Kishen  Ganga  rather  than  the  latter 
as  a  tributary  of  the  former,  notwithstanding  that  the  Jhelum  has  the 
greater  volume  of  water  and  a  longer  course  above  the  point  of  junction. 
The  Kishen  Ganga  is  also  a  very  considerable  river,  and  in  its  long  course 
flows  round  the  whole  northern  boundary  of  Kashmir.  We  were  to 
meet  this  river  again  in  its  upper  valley  on  our  way  back  to  Srinagar  from 
the  Baltoro. 

Not  far  from  this  remarkable  bend  of  the  river  stands  Domel,  the 
Kashmiri  custom-house.  It  consists  of  a  dirty  little  bazar  which 
purveys  to  the  needs  of  a  crowd  of  drivers  and  carters,  who  busy  them- 
selves with  deafening  shouts  among  the  oxen  and  horses  which  stray 
loose  among  the  vehicles  of  every  possible  type  laden  with  goods  Uable 
to  custom.  Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  the  British  Resident  in  Kashmir, 
had  obtained  from  the  Maharajah  a  free  pass  for  the  Duke's  equipment, 
which  saved  us  trouble  and  delay. 

From  now  on  the  valley  lies  between  the  Kaj  Nag  to  the  north  and 
a  spur  of  the  Pir  Panjal  to  the  south,  and  the  scenery  is  completely 
changed.  The  features  due  to  erosion  are  less  marked,  whereas  there 
is  a  great  increase  in  the  alluvial  deposits,  which  often  reach  a  thickness 
of  a  few  hundred  feet  and  form  a  series  of  terraces  at  the  bottom  of  the 
valley,  which  lie  with  such  regularity  on  either  side  of  the  deep  channel 
which  the  river  has  cut  in  the  sedimentary  mass  as  to  suggest  the 
hypothesis  of  a  lacustrian  origin.^ 

The  level  surfaces  of  the  terraces  are  carefully  irrigated  and  covered 
with  crops,  especially  rice  plantations,  made  in  narrow  terraces  rising 
one  above  another,  each  with  a  raised  margin  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
water  from  the  top  to  the  bottom. 

'  Lieut. -Col.  Godwin  Austen,  Geological  Notes  on  Part  of  the  North-Western  Himalaya 
Qitart.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.  xx  ;   and  Sir  Maktin  Conway,  op.  cit. 


From  Marseilles  tf)  Srinajxai 


(-■' 


Where  the  lie  of  the  land  does  not  lend  itself  to  rice  plantations  there 
are  fields  of  corn  and  orchards  in  full  blossom.  The  whole  countryside 
is  alive  with  the  song  of  all  sorts  of  birds.  The  cultivated  land  reaches 
up  the  slopes  to  the  edge  of  the  pine  woods  and  pasture  land.  Above 
these,  again,  are  rocks  sprinkled  with  snow  and  cut  by  couloirs  full  of 
neves. 

As  far  as  possible  the  road  runs  over  the  flat  allu\aal  terraces ;  but  at 
many  points  it  has  been  necessary  to  cut  it  out  along  the  precipitous 
cliffs  beneath  steep  slopes  of  shingle  and  detritus  of  all  sizes  in  perpetual 
course  of  disaggregation.  Every  now  and  then  we  come  upon  the 
debris  of  former  or  recent  landslides,  and  meet  squads  of  coolies  busily 
engaged  in  clearing  the  road  from  the  fallen  earth  and  stones.  During 
the  rainy  season  it  is  a  hazardous  journey,  and  the  road  may  be  cut  for 
days  together. 

The  day's  journey  was  of  69  miles,  and  we  halted  for  the  night  at 
Uri,  4,420  feet  above  the  sea  level,  where  the  valley  widens  out.  At 
this  point  the  scenery  is  very  beautifixl.  The  valley  is  dotted  with 
ruins  of  ancient  temples,  and  there  are  the  remains  of  a  fortified  city 
opposite  the  cliffs  of  Kaj  Nag,  which  is  still  crowned  with  snow.  The 
level  is  formed  by  fluvial-glacial  deposits,  and  near  at  hand  are  some 
big  granite  boulders,  whose  origin  has  been  a  source  of  much  con- 
troversy among  geologists.  The  absence  of  glacier  marks  in  the  valley 
below  and  above  Uri  makes  it  difficult  to  explain  how  these  boulders 
came  there,  and  whence  the  origin  of  the  moraine  remnants  which  are 
found  at  this  point.  Of  all  the  different  hypotheses  the  most  probable, 
perhaps,  is  that  of  Godwin  Austen,  which  has  been  further  amplified 
by  Oestreich^ — namely,  that  of  glaciers  from  the  lateral  valleys  which 
may  at  one  time  have  overflowed  into  the  main  valley,  leaving  the  traces 
in  question. 

Immediately  above  the  plain  of  Uri  the  valley  narrows  again  into 
the  famous  gorge  of  Basmagul,  one  of  the  grandest  in  the  world,  some 
20  miles  long  and  running  between  walls  more  than  7,000  feet  high. 
The  river  rages  with  fierce  anger  against  the  rocky  sides  of  its  narrow 
bed.  The  slopes  above  are  covered  with  forests  famed  from  of  old  for 
their  majestic  deodars.  Now  and  again  we  still  found  the  remains  of 
a  spring  avalanche  of  snow  along  the  margin  of  the  road.     Next  we 

'  Godwin  Austsst,  Oestreich,  opp.  citt. 


20  Chapter  II. 

pass  the  hydraulic  station  of  electric  jjower,  a  characteristic  symptom 
of  European  invasion.  Soon  we  reach  Baramula,  the  real  gate  of  the 
high  valley  plain  of  Kashmir.  The  torrent  which  thundered  through 
the  canon  of  Basmagul  is  now  transformed  into  a  wide  imposing  stream, 
which  flows  slowly  and  noiselessly  between  low  and  level  banks  along 
which  are  moored  endless  lines  of  boats  and  barges. 

Many  travellers  and  the  greater  part  of  the  freight  proceed  by  water 
from  Baramula  to  Srinagar,  taking  two  days  to  navigate  up  the  Jhelum 
and  cross  the  Wular  lake,  into  wliich  it  widens  above.  This  traffic 
has  given  rise  to  the  typical  httle  Kashmiri  town  of  Baramula,  with 
houses  of  sun-baked  brick,  windows  and  doors  of  wood,  often  well  car\^ed. 


THE  BUNGALOW  AT  BARAMUL\. 


and  narrow  lanes  crowded  with  handsome,  dirty  people,  and  with 
women  who  are  not  so  quick  to  cover  their  faces  at  the  sight  of  the 
stranger  but  that  he  can  get  a  ghmpse  of  regular  features  and  fine  eyes. 

The  distance  by  road  to  Srinagar  is  about  34  miles,  a  few  hours  by 
carriage.  The  road  which  cuts  across  the  plain  is  quite  straight,  and 
runs  between  two  regular  hues  of  tall  poplars,  set  close  to  one  another, 
as  on  certain  French  roads.  On  either  side  are  httle  lakes  and  swamps 
and  rice  plantations,  where  the  peasants  are  busy  turning  over  the 
mud  in  the  flooded  fields  with  primitive  ploughs  drawn  by  oxen.  Behind 
the  rows  of  poplars  around  the  scattered  farms  are  to  be  seen  a  great 
variety  of  fruit  trees  in  flower  and  gigantic  chenars  standing  alone  or  in 


From  jVlarseilles  to  Srinagar.  27 

clumps.  The  chenar,  or  Oriental  plane,  which  was  brought  into  the 
country  by  the  Mogol  emperors,  is  a  splendid  tree  which  reaches  an 
immense  size,  with  a  wonderfully  graceful  growth  of  branches  and  with 
dense  foliage  giving  a  deep,  cool  shade. 

On  either  side  extends  the  great  green  plain  of  Kashmir,  circled 
round  on  every  side  and  appearing  absolutely  shut  in  by  a  continuous 
girdle  of  mountains,  at  this  season  all  still  covered  with  snow.     The 


POPLAR   AVENUE    BETWEEN    BjlRAMULA   AND   SRINAGAE. 

valley  stands  at  a  mean  height  of  a  little  over  5,000  feet,  and  is  oval, 
with  its  greatest  axis  running  north-west  to  south-east,  about  90  miles 
long  and  from  20  to  25  miles  wide,  enclosed  by  the  Pir  Panjal  range 
to  the  south,  whose  peaks  rise  over  15,500  feet ;  and  by  the  Himalaya 
proper  to  the  north,  ending  in  the  lofty  summit  of  Nanga  Parbat 
(26,620  feet),  whose  peaks  are  visible  from  many  points  in  Kashmir, 
although  they  do  not  directly  command  the  valley. 

The  sight  of  this  vast  basin  enclosed  by  high  mountain  walls  infallibly 
suggests  the  notion  that  it  has  been  the  bed  of  a  lake.  No  wonder  that 
nearly  all  those  who  have  travelled  there  in  the  past  sought  for  and 


28  Cliai)ter  II. 

thought  to  have  found  clear  tokens  of  a  lake  which  at  some  recent 
geological  period  presumably  filled  the  valley  to  a  considerable  height 
above  the  present  level  of  the  plain,  where  all  that  remains  of  these 
supposed  mighty  waters  are  the  three  small  lakes  Wular,  Dal  and 
Manasbal.  According  to  this  hypothesis,  the  great  alluvial  deposits 
which  form  the  characteristic  terraces  called  kareiva,  usually  situated 
on  the  verge  of  the  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  ranges  and  rising  about 
200  to  300  feet  above  the  plain,  would  be  mere  lacustrian  deposits.  In 
the  middle  of  the  valley  they  would  have  been  gradually  worn  down 
and  swept  away  by  the  river  current  which  was  formed  when  the  lake 
broke  an  outlet  through  the  mountains  at  Baramula.  How  this  lake 
came  to  be  and  how  it  came  to  be  emptied  has  given  rise  to  numerous 
hypotheses,  of  which  Oestreich  has  given  a  clear  summary. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  legends  interwoven  with  mythology 
which  are  still  current  in  Kashmir,  and  which  are  given  in  a  Sanscrit 
work  by  Kalhana,  the  Kashmiri  historian  of  the  twelfth  century, 
translated  by  Stein,  appear  to  corroborate  at  every  point  the  geological 
hypothesis  of  a  former  submersion  of  the  valley.  From  Bernier  onwards 
all  those  who  have  written  on  Kashmir — Thomson,  Vigne,  the  brothers 
Schlagintweit,  Montgomerie,  Godwin  Austen,  Purdon,  Lydekker, 
Knight,  etc.  ^ — were  unhesitatingly  of  the  opinion  that  this  was  the  true 
explanation.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  the  supposed  lake  must  have 
had  its  existence  and  emptied  itself  at  a  geological  epoch  far  earher 
than  the  first  appearance  of  man  on  the  earth.  The  legend  therefore 
can  by  no  means  be  connected  with  direct  human  observation,  and 
loses  all  value  as  a  proof.  Drew  and  Stein  are  thus  forced  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Kashmir  were  competent  to 
read  and  interpret  the  geological  records  of  the  valley.  - 

Marchese  Roero  di  Cortanze,  a  Piedmontese  who  lived  in  Kashmir 
from  1853  to  1875,  and  who  travelled  in  Ladakh  and  Baltistan,  even 
crossing  the  Karakoram  into  Turkestan,  has  given  us  in  three  interesting 
httle  volumes  his  views  upon  the  country.     The  book  is  now  rare  and 


'  W.  H.  Purdon,  On  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  and  Physical  Configuration  of  the  Valley  of 
Kashmir.  Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  31,  1861,  p.  14  ;  Lydekker,  The  Geology  of  Kashmir  and  Chamha 
Territories.  Mem.  of  the  Geol.  Surv.  of  India,  22,  1883,  p.  186  ;  E.  F.  Knight,  Where  Three 
Empires  Meet.     London  1905.     The  other  authors  as  already  cited. 

'  F.  Drew,  The  Jummoo  and  Kashmir  Territories.  London,  ed.  1875  and  1877  ;  M.  A.  Stein, 
Memoir  and  Maps  Illustrating  the  Ancient  Geography  of  Kashmir.     Calcutta  1899. 


From  Marseilles  to  Srinay-ar.  29 


fe' 


difficult  to  get.  1  He  is  the  only  one  of  the  early  writers  who  shows  a 
cautious  reserve  as  to  the  authority  of  the  legend,  suggesting,  not 
unreasonably,  that  it  might  owe  its  origin  to  some  exceptionally  heavy 
spring  flood.  The  latter  have  frequently  proved  a  fearful  disaster  to 
the  whole  region.  Beside  the  melting  of  snows,  they  might  have  been 
provoked  by  some  obstacle  to  the  free  flow  of  the  river.  Kalhana's 
old  history,  which  we  have  just  quoted,  relates  that  in  the  second  half 
of  the  eleventh  century  an  obstruction  of  the  gorge  below  Baranuda 
caused  a  partial  inundation  of  the  valley.  It  would  seem  that  this 
obstacle  was  removed  by  contriving  to  collect  the  waters  of  the  river 
behind  a  temporary  dam  constructed  for  the  purpose,  and  then  opening 
it  and  letting  them  rush  through,  a  truly  colossal  work  for  that  period. 

Modern  geologists  are  inclined  to  give  up  the  lake  hypothesis 
altogether.  Ellsworth  Huntington  is  of  opinion  that  the  sedimentary 
deposits  were  the  work  of  rivers  and  torrents  in  the  basin  during  its 
formation,  while  the  Jhelum  was  gradually  eating  away  the  outlet  of 
Baramula,  so  that  there  would  never  have  been  occasion  for  a  great 
accumulation  of  waters.  ^  Oestreich  has  an  intermediary  hypothesis 
which  does  not  altogether  exclude  the  possibility  of  the  temporary 
existence  of  a  lake,  but  he  is  of  opinion  that  the  present  lakes  are  even 
now  in  process  of  formation,  and  by  no  means  remnants  of  a  greater 
ancient  lake^  ;  while  R.  D.  Oldham,  from  studies  carried  out  in  1903, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  deposits  are  of  fluvial  and  not  of 
lacustrian  origin,  and  that  there  is  no  proof  that  there  ever  were  any 
lakes  larger  than  those  actualh'  existing.^ 

^^^latever  may  have  been  the  geological  past  of  Kashmir,  its  present 
state  is  one  of  such  beauty  as  to  kindle  the  imagination  of  all  who  have 
attempted  to  describe  it.  From  the  earliest  traveller  to  the  latest 
book  of  Sir  Francis  Younghusband ''  there  is  a  unanimous  chorus  of 
enthusiasm  and  admiration.     To  our  party,  who  had  left  Italy  barely 

1  OswALDO  RoERO  DEI  Marchesi  di  Cortaxze,  Coshemir,  Piccolo  e  Medio  Thibet  e  Turkestan. 
Turin,  1881.     3  vols. 

2  E.  Huntington,  The  V(ile  of  Kashmir.     Bull.  Amer.  Geog.  Sac,  38,  1906,  p.  657. 

'  Vigne,  Stein  and  Huntington  liavc,  however,  found  certain  indications  that  the  Wular 
lake  was  at  one  time  larger  than  it  is  now.  The  village  of  Bandipur,  which  formerly  stood  on 
the  shore  of  the  lake,  is  now  nearly  a  mile  away  from  it. 

*  R.  D.  Oldham,  Note  ore  the  Glaciation  and  History  of  the  Sind  Valley,  Kashmir.  Records 
Geolog.  Sun:  of  India,  31,  1904,  p.  142. 

°  Sir  F.  E.  Younghusb.vnd,  Kashmir.     London  1909. 


so  Chai)ter  II. 

twenty  days  before,  the  first  impression  was  one  of  slight  disappointment. 
The  long  high  road,  the  Hnes  of  poplars  across  the  great  uniform  plain 
with  the  rice  plantations,  the  famihar  European  trees  and  the  far-off 
snowy  ranges  sUghtly  veiled  in  the  soft  mist  of  the  atmosphere,  combined 
to  produce  a  scene  so  hke  our  own  Lombard  plain  in  its  beauty,  that  we 
felt  baulked  of  the  East  of  our  dreams  which  we  had  come  so  far  to 
seek.  But  to  travellers  \Vho  come  to  Kashmir  after  months  or  years 
spent  in  the  parched  and  burning  plains  of  India,  or  after  wearying 
journeys  across  the  barren  waste  of  Central  Asia,  it  must  seem  a  paradise 
indeed. 

About  half  way  between  Baramula  and  Srinagar  our  carriages 
began  to  emit  squeaking  and  groaning  sounds  to  such  a  degree  as 
to  cause  grave  anxiety,  as  they  appeared  to  be  on  the  point  of  going 
to  pieces  altogether.  The  spokes  of  the  wheels  looked  as  if  they 
were  coming  off,  the  connection  between  springs  and  body  went 
wrong,  and  to  the  European  mind  it  really  looked  as  if  it  would  be 
scarcely  possible  to  proceed.  But  the  drivers,  by  means  of  cunning 
knots,  contrived  to  remedy  the  more  serious  disasters,  and  we  were  able 
to  pursue  our  way,  though  at  a  diminished  pace.  The  primitive  tonga 
is  decidedly  preferable  to  the  European  carriage  for  this  journey.  It 
is  very  probable  that  in  a  few  years  both  will  be  superseded  by  the 
motor-car,  not  to  speak  of  the  possibility  of  a  railwa}',  which  has  long 
been  projected  and  which  would  at  once  destroy  the  pleasant  remoteness 
of  this  beautiful  valley. 

Nine  miles  from  Srinagar  the  Duke  was  met  by  a  carriage  sent  from 
the  Residency.  Soon  we  reached  the  suburbs  of  Srinagar,  surrounded 
by  wide  fields  which  were  thronged  with  people.  We  crossed  the 
Jhelum  on  a  wide  wooden  bridge  to  the  right  bank,  where  lies  the 
European  quarter.  Around  the  great  grassy  maidan,  surrounded  by 
roads  shaded  with  poplars,  stand  the  Residencj^  the  bungalows  of  the 
officials  and  others,  the  post-office,  the  agencies  and  the  hotel.  The 
Duke  and  Negrotto  were  hospitably  entertained  by  Sir  J'rancis  and 
Lady  Younghusband.  We  have  now  reached  the  limits  of  civilized 
means  of  communication. 

Botta  and  one  of  the  guides  had  travelled  with  us.  The  other  six, 
who  left  Pindi  the  day  after  us,  were  to  arrive  the  next  day.  The 
limited  number  of  horses  at  the  stages  makes  it  impossible  for  a  great 
number  of  carriages  to  proceed  simultaneously. 


CHAPTER  III. 


KASHMIR. 

Antiquity  of  the  History  of  Kashmir.  —  The  Sanscrit  Chronicle  of  its  Kings.  —  The  First 
Mohammedan  Conquest.  —  The  Mogol  Emperors.  —  Afghans  and  Sikhs.  —  The  Inhabitants 
—  Srinagar.  —  Life  on  the  Jhelum.  —  The  Hanji  Caste.  —  The  City.  —  The  Mogol  Gardens. 
—The  European  Quarter.  —  Takt-i-Suliman  and  Hari  Parbat.  —  The  Dal.  —  Lake 
Vegetation.  —  The  Kashmiri  Spring.  —  Itinerary  of  the  Expedition.  —  Departure  from 
Srinagar.  —  The  Marshes  of  Anchar.  —  Mount  Haramuk.  —  The  First  Discovery  and 
Mensuration  of  K  -.  —  The  River  Sind.  —  The  State  Camp  at  Gunderbal. 


Srinagar  is  now  the  summer 
residence  of  His  Highness  the 
Maharajah  of  Jammu  and 
Kashmir,  one  of  the  great 
Protectorates  of  the  British 
Empire.  The  States  of  the 
Maharajah  include  Buddhist 
Ladakh,  which  by  race, 
customs  and  rehgion,  geo- 
graphical situation  and  oro- 
hydrographic  features,  is  really 
a  portion  of  Tibet ;  Baltistan, 
whose  inliabitants  are  Shiite 
and  the  minor  districts  of  Astor-Gilgit,  Hunza-Nagar, 
the  whole  of  the  territory  lying  between  Afghanistan, 
Chinese  Turkestan  and  Tibet  proper.  The  population  of  Kashmir 
is  Sunnite  Mohammedan,  whereas  Jammu  (a  vast  plain  district 
bordering  the  Punjab)  is  entirely  Hindu. 

The  whole  kingdom,  formed  of  elements  so  diverse,  was  but  recently 
united  under  the  domination  of  Hindu  rulers  of  the  Dogra  Rajput  race. 
Kashmir  had  been  for  some  twenty  yeare  subject  to  the  Sikhs  of  the 
Punjab  when  Gulab  Singh  was  sent  thither  in  1841  to  put  down  a  rising. 


Mohammedans  ; 
etc. — in  a  word 


82  Chapter   III. 

Ill  the  course  of  the  following  fifteen  years  his  army,  little  by  little, 
conquered  Ladakh  and  Baltistan.  Meantime  the  Punjab  had  been 
conquered  by  the  British,  between  1845  and  1856,  and  the  Imperial 
Government  recognized  the  sovei-eignty  over  Jammu  and  Kashmir 
of  Gulab  Singh,  upon  whom  they  conferred  the  title  of  Maharajah,  and 
who  became  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty.  It  would  seem  as  if 
the  peculiar  position  of  Kashmir,  surrounded  as  it  is  by  mountains 
which  are  difficult  to  cross,  and  passes  which  before  the  construction  of 
the  carriage  road  were  quite  closed  by  snow  for  several  months  every 
year,  ought  to  have  sheltered  it  from  outside  influences  and  put  it  in  a 
position  to  follow  the  lines  of  its  own  development  undisturbed,  favoured 
by  its  temperate  climate  and  the  marvellous  fertihty  of  its  soil.  This 
happy  isolation,  however,  only  lasted  till  the  twelfth  century.  Putting 
aside  the  many  notices  of  Kashmir  which  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  remotest  antiquity,  from  Herodotus  to  Marco  Polo,  we  have  the 
story  of  the  country  throughout  its  autonomous  Hindu  period  in  an 
ancient  Sanscrit  chronicle,  the  work  of  several  authors,  which  was  put 
together  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  This  work  gives 
us  minute  information  concerning  the  great  prosperity  of  the  coixntry, 
the  high  level  of  its  civilization,  the  development  of  its  arts  and  the 
splendour  of  its  temples. 

The  first  Mohammedan  conquest  took  place  in  1341,  and  thence- 
forward the  country  never  threw  o&  the  yoke  of  foreign  domination. 
The  independent  Mohammedan  kings  were  followed  by  Mogol  emperors, 
under  whom  it  became  an  integral  part  of  the  empire  of  Delhi,  and  was 
adorned  with  sumptuous  palaces  and  gardens.  Next  came  the  Afghan 
conquest,  and  not  until  1819  was  Kashmir  once  more  governed  by 
Hindus — the  Sikhs  of  the  Punjab.  During  the  five  centuries  of 
Mohammedan  domination  the  old  Hindu  faith  had  been  almost  entirely 
superseded  by  Islam. 

The  Kashmiris  of  to-day  appear  to  differ  little  from  the  Kashmiris 
of  thirteen  centuries  ago,  when  the  Chinese  pilgrim  Hwen  Tsiang 
described  them  as  "  light  and  frivolous,  and  of  a  weak,  pusillanimous 
disposition,  handsome  in  appearance,  given  to  cunning,  fond  of  learning 
and  well  instructed  "  (Stein). 

It  is  nevertheless  indubitable  that  the  long  foreign  domination  has 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  their  character,  which  is  judged  by 
universal  consent  to  be  lacking  in  manly  quahties  and  inclined  to  deceit. 


Kasl 


unir. 


33 


Tliey  give  proof,  however,  of  alert  intelligence,  of  marked  artistic  talents, 
and  of  considerable  ingenionsness  and  dexterity  in  the  various  handi- 
crafts for  which  they  are  distinguished  throughout  India. 

They  are  a  handsome  people  and  well  built,  with  regular  features  ; 
and  the  foreigner  would  be  more  inclined  to  admire  them  if  he  were  not 
unremittingly  persecuted  by  the  insistent  importunity  of  their  offers 
of  service  or  of  wares,  which  reaches  such  a  point  that  frequently  only 
the  threat  of  personal  cliastisement  avails  to  get  rid  of  them. 


SRINACAR    KHDM    THE    SI.OI'E    ol'    IlAKl    I'AEtBAl 


Kashmii'  seems  to  be  now  at  last  freed  from  the  secular  oppression 
of  her  invaders,  to  which  was  added  the  calamity  of  earthquakes,  w^hich 
time  after  time  decimated  her  po]Milation  and  laid  low  their  habitations, 
not  to  speak  of  the  floods,  epidemics  and  famines  with  which  her  history 
abounds  in  the  past  as  well  as  in  recent  times.  The  general  appearance 
of  the  population  is  now  faiily  prosperous.  The  people  look  healthy 
and  well  fed,  with  fine  chubby  children  ;  nor  did  we  often  see  persons 
who  were  diseased  or  crippled  or  rachitic,  or  any  other  signs  of 
extreme  misery. 


34 


Chai)ter  III. 


During  the  long  period  of  Mohammedan  domination  the  eajjital 
city  was  known  as  Kashmir,  but  when  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Sikhs 
it  resumed  its  ancient  Hindu  name  of  Srinagar.  ^  It  has  a  population 
of  about  130,000,  and  stands  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  plain  at  a  height 
of  5,303  feet,  upon  the  banks  of  the  Jhelum,  which  flows  through  it  in 
a  sweeping  curve.  The  river  is  the  main  thoroughfare  of  the  city,  and 
is  always  crowded  with  boats  of  various  sorts.  The  light,  swift  shikara, 
the  dunga,  a  big  fiat-bottomed  boat  with  a  shelter  amidships  roofed 


SRDJAGAR  FROM  TAKT-I-SULIMAN.   THE  EUROPEAN  QUARTER. 


ovei-  with  matting  ;  the  heavy  barges  loaded  with  wood,  grain,  oil  or 
vegetables — all  come  and  go  continually  up  and  down  the  river  or  lie 
tied  along  the  banks.  The  boatmen  form  a  large  population,  and  with 
their  women  and  children  pass  their  whole  life  on  the  water.  They 
belong  to  a  special  caste  known  as  Hanji.  They  are  well  built  and 
handsome,  but  are  looked  down  upon,  not  without  good  reason,  by 
both  Mohammedans  and  Hindus. 

'  According  to  Knight  and  Younghusband  (opp.  citt.)  Srinagar  signifies  "City  of  the  sun"; 
according  to  Ujfalvy,  "  City  of  healing,"  from  the  Sanscrit  ^ri-nSgara  (Ch.  de  Ujfalvy,  Les 
Arijens  ati  nord  et  au  Slid  de  V Hindu  Kouch.     Paris  1896). 


Srinagai" 


p 


Kashmir. 


35 


The  principal  houses  of  Srinagar  stand  along  the  liver.  The 
Maharajah's  palace  is  quite  modern.  The  few  old  palaces  which  are  still 
standing  are  in  the  hands  of  wealthy  merchants.  Over  a  solid  basement 
wall,  built  like  a  bastion  to  withstand  the  freshets  of  the  river,  rises  a 
facade  adorned  with  several  tiers  of  wooden  balconies  one  above  another, 
elaborately  carved  with  effective  and  ancient  designs.  Alongside  of 
these  similar  great  foundations  of  stone  blocks,  which  must  have 
supported  other  palaces  in  the  past,   now  serve  to  sustain  wretched 


THE   NATIVE    CITY,    FROM    TAKT-I-SUI.IMAN. 


tumble-down  hovels.  The  whole  river  bank  to  the  water's  edge  is  taken 
up  with  houses,  except  where  at  intervals  long  flights  of  steps  give 
access  to  the  river.  Here  crowds  of  men,  women  and  children  come  and 
go  incessantly,  wash  their  clothes,  their  persons  and  their  pots  and 
pans,  or  sit  chatting  in  rows  to  enjoy  the  cool  of  the  evening.  The  two 
banks  are  joined  by  seven  bridges  resting  upon  piers  solidly  built  out 
of  the  interlocked  trunks  of  trees,  with  the  interstices  filled  up  with 
stones.  Numerous  canals  branch  off  from  the  river,  and  intersect  the 
city  in  every  direction,  giving  rise  to  the  title  of  "  Venice  of  the  East," 

(9221)  c  2 


36  Chapter   111. 

but  I  must  say  that  the  comparison  is  due  rather  to  a  lively  imagination 
than  to  any  actual  resemblance  between  the  two  cities. 

The  narrow  streets  on  the  land  are,  as  is  usual  in  the  East,  mainly 
bazars,  and  are  crowded  with  natives  clothed  in  the  native  woollen 
home-spun,  usually  brown  or  dirty  white  in  colour,  and  known  as  pnttoo. 
You  meet  few  women,  and  those  few  evidently  belong  to  the  lower 
castes.  The  city  is  full  of  temples  and  mosques,  but  of  these  only  two 
or  three  offer  any  antiquarian  or  artistic  interest.  Little  trace  remains 
of  the  ancient  civiUzation  described  in  the  old  chronicles.     This  may 


STREET    IX    SRISAOAR. 


be  due  to  earthquakes,  which  have  several  times  laid  Srinagar  low,  to 
the  iconoclastic  rage  of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  or  to  Eastern 
carelessness,  made  up  of  fatahsm,  sloth  and  indifference  to  the  past. 
The  few  monuments  of  which  any  trace  exists  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Srinagar  are  remains  of  Buddhist  temples.  Next  to  these  the  most 
interesting  buildings  are  without  doubt  the  sumptuous  country  houses 
of  the  Mogol  emperors.  Here  the  splendid  old  gardens,  with  their 
artificial  cascades,  their  great  tanks  and  elaborate  fountains,  their 
splendid  alleys  of  huge  chenars,  the  design,  still  recognizable,  of  their 
formal  plan,  and  the  architectural  detail  of  their  little  pleasure-houses, 
although   not  to   be  compared  with  the   marvels  of  Delhi  and  Agra, 


KasJunir. 


37 


nevertheless  hear  witness  to  the  luxury,  taste  and  refinement  which  the 
world  of  Islam  brought  with  it  to  the  scene  of  its  conquests,  from  Spain 
to  India.  Defeated  and  thrust  back  from  the  west  by  the  victorious 
cross,  after  conquering  nearly  one-half  of  the  world,  it  was  here  that 
Islam  displayed  its  last  splendours. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  Srinagar  are  the  roots  of 
the  houses  and  even  of  the  temples,  which  are  covered  with  earth  and 
planted  with  grass  and  flowers.  In  spring  they  are  gay  with  blue  iris 
and  scarlet  tulips,  around  which  hover  butterflies  and  birds.     The  latter 


AT   SRISAGAR. 


pervade  and  haunt  every  nook  of  the  city,  streets,  verandahs,  .shops 
in  the  bazar  and  temples  with  their  joyous  notes,  their  twittering  and 
their  chirping,  and  seem  to  live  on  excellent  terms  with  the  whole 
population. 

The  European  quarter  consists  of  a  few  dozen  bungalows  in  addition 
to  the  Residency.  It  stands  upstream  from  the  native  town,  and  is 
built  chiefly  round  a  great  open  space  like  a  huge  village  green.  It  is 
enclosed  on  one  side  by  the  river  and  on  the  other  by  the  wide  canal 
which  comes  into  the  river  from  the  AVular  lake  ;  and  it  is  protected 
from  floods  by  high  dykes,  along  which  run  roads  lined  with  magnificent 
ancient  chenar  trees.  On  the  lower  portion  of  this  bank,  known  as  the 
Bund,  next  to  the  native  town,  stand  the  rows  of  European  shops  kept 

(9221)  c  3 


38 


Chapter  III. 


by  Parsees  or  Euiasians.  We  must  not  pass  over  the  mission  hospital, 
which  was  founded  and  is  kept  up  by  the  two  Doctors  Neve,  who  have 
done  well-known  and  excellent  exploring  and  Alpine  expeditions  in 
the  surrounding  ranges  during  the  brief  holidays  permitted  by  their 
arduous  missionary  labours. 

The  crowds  of  European  visitors  who  seek  out  Kashmir  in  the  spring 
and  summer  live  mostlv  in  house-boats  of  from  four  to  six  rooms,  built 


HOUSE  AND  INDIAN  TEMPLE  ON  THE  CANAL. 


upon  flat-bottomed  barges.  These  are  tied  up  at  the  pleasantest  spots 
along  the  banks  of  the  Jhelum  or  on  the  canals  or  lakes.  After  the 
middle  of  June  the  European  colony,  both  residents  and  tourists,  move 
up  into  the  hills,  either  to  Gulmarg,  where  there  is  a  hotel  and  bungalows, 
or  to  the  higher  valleys,  where  they  camp  out  under  canvas. 

Eastward  and  northward  of  the  town  of  Srinagar  rise  two  hilLs, 
which  play  a  great  part  in  the  beauty  of  the  scenery.  The  one  to  the 
east  terminates  the  spur  which  runs  out  from  the  ranges  to  the  north- 
east into  the  plain,  and  rises  to  a  height  of  about  1,000  feet  just  above 
the  European  quarter.     Upon  the  top  of  this  hill  stands  an  ancient 


Ka.sl 


iimr. 


39 


temple  known  as  the  Takt-i-Suliman,  one  of  the  numerous  "  thrones  of 
Solomon,"  a  name  often  given  by  Mohammedans  to  any  striking  i>solated 
peak  in  the  countries  subject  to  their  laws  and  traditions.  According 
to  Fergusson,  this  temple  is  of  relatively  recent  date,  but  built  upon  a 
much  older  foundation.^  The  Takt-i-Suliman  is  a  favourite  walk  or 
ride  of  about  an  hour,  and  offers  a  marvellous  view  of  the  plain  and 
of  the  lakes  and  hills  which  surround  it. 


BRIDGE    AND    HOrSE-BOAT   OX    THE   JHEI.UM. 


The  other  of  the  two  hills  is  an  isolated  and  precipitous  rock  to  the 
north  of  the  city,  known  as  Hari  Parbat,  on  top  of  which  stands  an 
ancient  fort  now  used  as  a  prison. 

The  expedition  remained  in  Srinagar  seven  days,  from  April  16th 
to  April  23rd,  partly  to  wait  for  the  heavy  luggage  which  was  slowly 
toihng  up  the  road  we  had  travelled  so  quickly,  and  partly  to  complete 
our  equipment  at  all  points.  The  chief  job  which  we  had  to  do  in 
Srinagar  was  to  get  a  certain  number  of  Jciltas  made.  These  are  strong 
light  panniers  made  of  wickerwork,  either  rectangular  or  barrel-shaped, 

'  James  Fergussok,  History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture.     2nd  ed.     I>ondon  1910 
2  vols. 

(9221)  c  4 


40 


Chai)tcT   III. 


and  are  covered  with  rough  slieepfskiii.  the  hd  being  fastened  witli  chains 
and  a  padlock.  The  more  fragile  portions  of  the  equipment,  when  not 
otherwise  protected,  were  to  be  put  into  these  kiltas. 

Arrangements  for  our  journey  had  already  been  made  by  the  courtesy 
of  the  Resident,  upon  suggestions  communicated  by  the  Duke  from 
Europe.  Sir  Francis  Younghusband  had  entrusted  Mr.  A.  C.  Baines 
with  the  organization  of  the  caravan,  the  recruiting  of  horses  and  coolies, 
and  the  making  of  deposits  of  stores  at  certain  points  on  our  march. 


rjJDER   THE    CHENAR   TREES. 


Mr.  Baines  had  left  Srinagar  a  couple  of  weeks  before  oui'  arrival,  and 
was  waiting  for  us  in  the  Dras  Valley.  In  this  way  we  had  leisure  to 
enjoy  the  kind  hospitality  of  Sir  Francis  and  Lady  Younghusband  and 
the  other  courteous  English  officials,  and  to  do  a  httle  sight-.seeing  in 
the  city  and  neighbourhood.  Little  by  little  the  strong  local  colour 
of  the  place  took  possession  of  our  minds,  and  dispelled  the  first  fleeting 
im2:»ression  of  vague  disappointment.  Every  stroke  of  the  oar  on  the 
river  or  in  the  canals  revealed  fresh  details  of  native  life,  wonderful 
groups  and  charming  scenes  of  Oriental  manners  and  castoms. 

By  far  the  most  fascinating  point  in  the  surroundings  of  Srinagar  is 
the  Dal  lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  lying  at  the  feet  of  the  encircling 


Kashmir. 


41 


hills  which  form  the  spur  terminating  in  Takt-i-Suliman.  This  lake  is 
joined  to  the  Jhelum  by  an  artificial  canal,  which  is  provided  with  locks 
ingeniously  constructed  so  as  to  prevent  automatically  the  river  inunda- 
tions from  flowing  back  into  the  lake.  Upon  the  shores  of  the  Dal  lie 
the  pleasant  old  Mogol  gardens,  all  blossoming  with  lilacs  and  roses, 
and  full  of  the  buds  of  iris,  lilies  and  narcissus.  Under  the  lofty  chenar 
trees  groups  of  natives  stroll  in  the  shade  or  sit  in  groups  with  their 
children,  who  seem  as  serious  and  solemn  as  their  elders. 


CANAL   AT   SKINAOAR. 


An  afternoon  on  the  Dal  lake  leaves  the  memory  of  one  of  the 
fairest  scenes  of  nature  which  we  have  l)een  piivileged  to  behold.  The 
shikara  boat  flies  swiftly  before  the  strokes  of  a  dozen  oarsmen,  who 
use  short  paddles  with  a  wide  flat  blade  shaped  like  a  heart.  They 
chant  as  they  low,  following  the  rhythm  with  the  stroke  of  theii'  oars  ; 
and  now  and  again  the  head  boatman,  who  gives  the  time,  changes 
the  measure  abruptly  from  quick  to  slow  or  from  slow  to  quick,  so  as  to 
rest  the  rowers  by  a  change  of  motion.  The  strange  vegetation  of  the 
lake  bottom  shows  like  a  miniature  forest  gently  swaying  in  the  currents 
of  the  limpid,  bluish-green  water.  It  seems  like  navigating  in  a  canal, 
because,  with  the  exception  of.  the  ways  channeled  out  by  the  current. 


42 


Chapter   III. 


the  whole  surface  of  the  lake  is  clothed  with  a  uniform  mantle  of 
vegetation,  through  which  the  water  is  hardly  visible.  There  are  wide 
fields  of  soft  green  lotos  leaves,   above  which  will  rise  later  on  the 

exquisite     milky  -  white     blossoms 


%, 


k«*'A^A'^-^'- 


A    LONELY    CANAL. 


detached    from    the    lake    bottom 


with  their  delicately-shaded  pink 
tips.  Between  the  lotos  float  the 
liuge  round  flat  leaves  of  the 
AnncsJeya  horrida,  whose  level 
surface  of  velvety  green  gives  no 
warning  of  the  cruel  hooked  spines 
which  clothe  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf  and  stem.  The  long  filaments 
of  the  Singara,  or  ed>ible  water- 
chestnut,  twist  and  tangle  round 
innumerable  other  varieties  of 
aquatic  vegetation.  Many  parts 
of  the  lake  are  dotted  with  floating 
gardens,  like  islands.  These  have 
been  often  described.  They  consist 
of  tangled  masses  of  water  plants, 
and    floating    freely.       Upon    the 


surface  thus  obtained  mud  is  spread,  upon  which  grow  beans,  pumpkins, 
water-melons,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  in  fact  every  species  of  vegetable, 
in  great  abundance. 

Here  you  meet  great  barges  full  of  natives  seated  in  a  circle  round 
the  narghile,  poled  slowly  along  by  a  bargeman  squatting  on  the  stern. 
Again,  towards  evening  slender  barks  glide  upon  the  water,  where  a 
fisherman  standing  in  the  bows  gazes  intently  into  the  water  ahead, 
armed  with  a  trident  which  he  is  ready  to  hurl  down  at  sight  of  a  trout. 
The  shores  are  white  with  blossoming  orchards  of  j^each,  cherry,  apple, 
pear  and  plum  ;  and  the  mulberries,  poplars  and  willows  are  festooned 
with  luxuriant  vines.  Here  we  have  every  European  variety  of  fruit- 
tree,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  are  strictly  confined  to  the 
Mediterranean  region — the  orange,  lemon,  fig  and  olive.  Flocks  and 
herds  with  their  lambs  and  calves  graze  in  the  pleasant  shade,  and  the 
air  is  alive  with  the  song  of  the  lively  bulbuls,  dear  to  the  Persian  poets, 
with  the  cooing  of  doves,  the  strident  notes  of  the  mina  bird  and  the 
crow,  and  the  pleasant  call  of  the  hoopoe.     It  was  still  too  early  for  the 


Ki 


isiiiuir. 


43 


Tiiigratorv  biids  from  the  plain,  the  orioles,  the  kingfishers  and  herons, 
and  the  great  flights  of  ducks  and  geese. 

Nearly  every  afternoon  the  sky  clouds  over  and  becomes  threatening. 
Here  the  winds  blowing  hot  from  the  Indian  plain  meet  the  cold  mountain 
barrier,  and  hence  frequent  storms.  In  the  sky,  the  air  and  the 
mountains  follow  in  rapid  succession  an  infinite  variety  of  colours  with 
a  wonderful  play  of  light  and  shade,  azure  i-ents  opening  on  every  side 


THE    BASKS   OF    THE    DAL. 


in  the  livid  indigo  of  the  storm-cloud.  As  a  rule,  the  sky  clears  up  after 
a  couple  of  hours,  sometimes  with  a  shower  of  rain,  sometimes  without. 
Then  follow  marvellous  evenings,  and  the  far-off  snows  are  kindled 
by  the  flaming  sunset. 

Lack  of  space  foibids  my  dwelling  longer  upon  the  beauties  of  the 
vale  of  Kashmir.  The  reader  who  may  wish  to  know  more  of  this 
garden  of  the  Himalaya  will  perhaps  find  a  more  spontaneous,  lively 
and  picturesque  account  of  the  region,  as  well  as  greater  observation 
and  detail,  in  the  books  of  the  ancient  traveller  than  in  those  of  our  own 


44 


(1iai)tor   III. 


day.     Kashmir  has  not  so  changed  in  the  hist  fifty  to  seventy  years  as 
no  longer  to  resemble  the  descriptions  of  its  earlier  visitors.  ^ 

On  the  morning  of  April  22n(l  the  long  line  of  ekkas  loaded  with 
luggage  entered  the  garden  of  the  Residency.  We  worked  all  day  long 
with  the  Duke  at  going  over  and  rearranging  the  whole  equipment. 
It  was  loaded  on  to  six  dunga  boats  the  same  evening,  and  left  Siinagar 
to  cross  the  plain  by  river  and  canal  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 


ON    THE    DAL. 


The  itinerary  of  the  expedition  from  Srinagar  to  the  Karakoram 
may  be  indicated  in  a  few  words.'-  As  I  have  already  pointed  out, 
the  mountains  which  enclose  Kashmir  to  the  north  form  part  of  the 
main  range  of  the  Himalaya  proper,  running  from  south-east  to  north- 
west as  far  as  Astor,  where  they  terminate  with  Nanga  Parbat.     This 

'  Among  the  best  are:  B.VKON  C.  von  HCgel,  Kashmir  iind  tlus  Reich  ikr  Hick.  Vienna 
1840  ;  VV.  MooRCROFT  and  G.  Trebeck,  Travels  in  the  Himalnyan  Provinces  of  Hindustan,  etc. 
(ed.  by  H.  Haynian  Wilson).  London  1841.  2  vols.;  (;.  T.  Vigse,  Travels  in  Kashmir,  etc. 
London  1842.  2  vols.;  Th.  Thomson,  Western  Himal/iya  and  Thibet.  London  18r)2  ;  Sir  A. 
Cunningham,  Ladnlc  arul  Surrouruling  Countries.  London  1854;  the  voliiminou.s  works  of 
H.  VON  ScHLAGiNTWEiT  and  the  volume  of  F.  Drev*'  already  cited.  Among  more  recent  books, 
Kashmir  by  Sir  Francis  Younghusband  is  very  valuable,  the  author  being  qualified  not  only 
by  his  long  career  as  Resident  but  also  by  his  travels  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

'  See  the  itinerary  map,  From  Kawal  Pindi  to  the  Baltoro  Glacier. 


Kaslniiir. 


45 


range  divides  Kashmir  from  the  Indus  valley,  beyond  wliich  lies  the 
Karakoram  lange.^  Therefore,  in  order  to  reach  the  latter  from 
Srinagar  the  Himalaya  must  first  be  crossed.  The  lowest  pass  in  the 
whole  of  this  end  of  the  chain  is  the  Zoji  La  (11,230  feet),  at  the  head 
of  the  Sind  valley,  north-east  of  Srinagar.  Beyond  the  pass  the  Dras 
valley  leads  down  to  the  Indus.  Next  the  Indus  valley  is  followed 
northward  as  far  as  Skardu.  tlie  capital  of  Baltistan.     From  Skardu  the 


SUSSKT   OX    THE    DAI.. 


route  crosses  the  Indus  and  penetrates  directly  into  the  Karakoram. 
This  is  the  main  route,  which  is  open  all  the  year  round,  with  the 
exception  of  occasional  short  interruptions. 

Another  route,  about  50  miles  shorter,  crosses  the  Rajdiangan  Pass 
directly  north  of  Srinagar,  and  by  the  valley  of  the  Kishen  Ganga  reaches 
the  vast  table-land  of  the  Deosai,  which  is  more  than  30  miles  wide,  with 
a  mean  altitude  of  about  14,000  feet.     Hence  the  route  descends  directly 


•  OuiLHRMOD  is  mistaken  when  he  says  (Sir  nwis  dans  VUivuilaya,  etc.,  p.  47)  that  the 
tableland  of  Ka.shmir  is  comprised  between  the  Himalaya  to  the  south  and  the  Karakoram  to 
the  north.  Nor  doe-s  the  Karakoram  separate  Kashmir  from  Tibet,  as  he  seems  to  think,  but  in 
reality  lies  between  Baltistan  and  Chinese  Turkestan. 


46  (Miapter  III. 

to  Skaidu.  The  Deosai  plains,  however,  are  not  practicable  until  after 
the  middle  of  July.  In  April  we  should  have  found  them  covered  with 
deep  snow  and  subject  to  dangerous  storms,  and  with  our  large  caravan 
and  equipment  it  was  an  attempt  not  to  be  thought  of.  Even  the  Zoji 
La  is  not  quite  without  danger  for  a  large  party  encumbered  with  heavy 
luggage.  1 

On  April  23rd,  in  the  early  afternoon,  we  started  from  Srinagar 
with  Sir  Francis  and  Lady  Younghusband,  who  accompanied  the  Duke 
to  the  first  stage.  We  took  our  places  in  two  splendid  state  shikaras, 
each  with  a  crew  of  fifteen  rowers  dressed  in  tunics  and  turbans  of 
flaming  red  and  commanded  by  the  Jemadar  Sedik,  a  dry,  little  old 
man,  tightly  clothed  in  a  gorgeous  uniform  covered  with  gold  braid, 
the  "  admiral  "  of  the  Maharajah's  fleet. 

We  went  almost  directly  north,  first  tlirough  a  narrow  canal,  little 
better  than  a  ditch,  betw^een  the  houses  of  a  series  of  villages.  Out  of 
the  muddy  water  on  every  side  start  naked  children,  dark  and  chubby, 
like  beautiful  little  bronzes,  and  rush  to  hide  behind  their  elders,  while 
the  bigger  ones,  surprised  in  their  bath,  hasten  to  cover  themselves  with 
extremely  dirty  shirts  upon  our  approach.  With  some  difficulty  we 
pass  numerous  great  grain  barges  in  the  narrow  canal.  Now  and  again 
we  glide  under  some  arched  bridge  plainly  of  ancient  date,  and  we  notice 
here  and  there  foundations  and  bits  of  walls  which  certainly  must  have 
supported  more  worthy  buildings  than  the  hovels  which  crown  them 
at  present. 

Next  we  drift  between  banks  green  with  willows,  through  a  fi'esh 
smiling  country  of  rice  plantations  and  fields  of  cereals  of  every  descrip- 
tion, and  at  last  we  come  out  of  the  narrow  canals  into  a  vast  sheet 
of  water  known  as  Anchar,  a  shallow  lagoon  where  the  flat  bottoms 
of  our  boats  keep  touching  and  even  running  aground  on  the  least 
deviation  from  the  narrow  channel,  for  the  passage  is  not  free  from 
sandbanks.  On  every  side  the  aquatic  vegetation  is  so  dense  that  it 
would  seem  like  a  field  were  it  not  for  the  light  skiffs  gliding  hither  and 
thither  over  the  surface,  rowed  by  women  who  are  busily  gathering 
masses  of  vegetation  to  form  their  floating  gardens.  Over  the  whole 
swamp  fly  flocks  of  water  birds. 

•  W.  Moorcroft  was  the  first  European  to  give  us  any  precise  information  about  the  Dras 
route.  Both  the  Dras  and  the  Deosai  routes  between  Srinagar  and  Skaidu  are  described  in  detail 
by  Vigne  and  Thomson  in  the  books  already  cited. 


Kashmir. 


47 


The  Sind  river,  the  biggest  confluent  of  the  Jheknn,  flows  with  its 
undivided  stream  into  this  lagoon.  Its  lower  course  is  winding  and 
s\vift,  hermned  in  between  low  earth-banks,  portions  of  which  are 
constantly  falling  into  the  water,  which  eats  them  away.  The  river, 
now  at  low  water,  was  about  the  size  of  the  Tiber  in  moderate  flood. 
When  we  entered  the  channel  our  rowers  got  out  on  the  shore  and 
placed  themselves  in  a  file,  each  putting  around  him  a  loop  of  a  long 


THE   SISD. 


rope,  by  which  they  towed  the  boats  at  a  run  with  the  assistance  of  a 
crowd  of  handsome,  half-naked  lads,  who  had  apparently  been  on  the 
look-out  for  our  arrival.  Oui'  course  now  turns  eastward  toward  the 
snowy  mountains,  and  we  make  straight  for  the  Sind  valley,  whose 
gate  is  guarded  by  the  mighty  peak  of  Haramuk,  which  rears  its  crown 
of  glaciers  to  a  height  of  nearly  12,000  feet  above  the  plain  (16,903  feet 
above  sea  level).  This  is  the  largest  of  the  mountains  which  encircle 
the  vale  of  Kashmir.  Dr.  E.  F.  Neve,  with  G.  Millais,  ascended  it  for 
the  first  time  in  1899.  ^  It  was  once  more  cHmbed  in  1907  by  A.  L. 
Mumm  and  Major  Bruce.-  From  one  of  the  western  peaks  of  Haramuk. 
known  as  Station  Peak,  about  16,000  feet  high,  Colonel  Moutgomerie 

1  E.  F.  Neve,  The  Aicenl  of  Haramuk.     Alp.  Jour.  20,  1900,  p.  122. 
»  A.  L.  JIlMM.  In  and  About  Kashmir.     Alp.  Jour.  24,  1898,  p.  195. 


48  Chapter  III. 

in  1858  saw  K-  for  the  first  time,  at  a  distance  of  137  miles  across  the 
Deosai  plains,  and  measured  it  by  triangulation.  ^ 

We  reached  Gundei'bal,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sind  valley,  about 
5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  Maharajah,  Sir  Pratab  Singh,  who  was 
then  still  in  Jammu,  had  made  arrangements  to  show  hospitality  to  the. 
Duke,  notwithstanding  his  absence.  A  dozen  state  tents  had  been  set 
up  on  the  bank  under  the  shade  of  the  splendid  chenar  trees,  and  four 
state  house-boats  were  tied  up  on  the  bank,  so  that  there  was  room  for 
a  far  more  numerous  expedition  than  ours. 

Beyond  the  river  bank  the  vast  rice-fields  stretched  to  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.  Not  far  from  the  camp  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  bridge 
which  once  crossed  the  Sind.  Three  arches  and  two  or  three  broken 
piles  are  still  standing.  No  road  leads  to  it  now.  The  horses  that  are 
to  carry  our  luggage  to-morrow,  as  well  as  four  fine  saddle  ponies  which 
the  Maharajah  has  placed  at  our  disposal  to  take  us  up  to  tlie  first  snows 
of  the  Sind  valley,  are  grazing  in  the  surrounding  fields. 

The  dungas  with  our  luggage  and  guides  arrived  a  few  hours  after  us. 
The  loaded  boats  drew  more  water,  and  had  therefore  been  sent  around 
by  the  Jhelum  and  along  a  canal  which  connects  it  with  tlie  Sind  river, 
spending  a  night  on  the  way. 

We  went  to  bed  eai'ly  on  the  charpoys  of  the  house-boats.  The 
murmur  of  the  river,  the  lapping  of  water  round  the  sides  of  the  house- 
boat, the  sound  of  an  oar  dipping  in  the  stream,  called  up  images  remote 
indeed  from  the  Himalaya.  Every  now  and  then  a  dull  thud  shakes 
our  floating  house — it  has  been  struck  by  one  of  the  numerous  tree  trunks 
which  the  river  carries  down. 

'  Si/m>psi>!  nf  Re-siiUx  0.  T.  S.  VII.     Dehra  Dun  IS7!t,  p.  xxx. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE    SIND    VALLEY. 


Formation  of  the  Caravan.  —  Distribution  of  the  Forests.  —  Glaciers  of  the  Sind  Valley,  Past 
and  Present.  —  (Jund.  —  Ka.shmiri  Coolies.  —  Officials  and  Functionaries.  —  AbduUah  the 
Shikari.  —  The  Official  Escort.  —  Coolies'  Pay.  —  The  Engagement  of  New  Coohes.  — 
The  (iorge  of  Gagangir.  —  Sonamarg.  —  Post,  Telegraph  and  Meteorology.  —  Post  Runners. 
—  Baltal.  —  The  First  Baltis.  —  Avalanches  and  Landslides. 


The  whole  of  our  baggage  had 
been  sent  off  from  Europe  aheady 
divided  into  packages  of  the  right 
weight  for  coohes,  and  formed  aho- 
gether  262  loads  of  about  50  lbs. 
each.  This  made  it  possible  to 
arrange  the  caravan  quite  easily 
and  without  any  waste  of  time  from 
the  very  outset,  in  the  early  morning 
of  April  24th.  Each  of  our  ninety- 
five  ponies  carried  two  or  three  of 
these  loads,  and  in  a  short  time  all 
were  on  the  road.  AVe  did  not 
follow  until  9  o'clock,  after  taking 
leave  of  our  courteous  hosts,  Sir 
Francis  and  Lady  Younghusband. 

Now  at  last  the  real  journey  had  begun — the  camp  hfe  that  brings 
one  into  the  close  communion  with  nature  so  good  for  body  and  mind. 
Walking  is  really  the  only  kind  of  locomotion  that  puts  us  on  equal 
terms  with  the  world  about  us.  Our  modern  mechanical  methods  of 
transportation  tend  to  make  us  lose  sight  of  our  relative  importance. 
The  first  stage  of  our  journey  was  only  12  miles,  and  ran  along  the  nearly 
level  bottom  of  the  Sind  valley,  over  a  wide  path  between  blossoming 

(9221)  D 


50  (Miapter  TV. 

trees  and  cultivated  fields.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  valley,  on  the  left 
side,  runs  for  some  distance  a  high  ledge,  similar  to  those  we  had  noticed 
in  the  Jhelum  valley,  but  in  this  case  formed  by  fluvio-glacial  deposits. 
The  opposite  side  of  the  valley  is  formed  by  the  southern  spurs  of 
Haramuk. 

The  main  trend  of  the  Sind  valley  is  from  west  to  east.  The  left 
side,  which  faces  north,  is  steep  and  almost  entirely  clothed  with  forests. 
The  other  side,  wliich  the  path  mainly  follows,  slopes  somewhat  more 
gently,  and  is  treeless,  except  for  the  strip  of  cultivation  at  the  bottom, 
above  which  pastures  reach  up  to  the  foot  of  the  rocks.  The  limitation 
of  the  forests  to  the  slopes  which  face  the  north  is  universal  throughout 


TlIK    (AMI-    AT    KANCAN. 


the  region,  and  has  been  noticed  by  many  travellers.  It  is  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  snows  lie  longer  on  the  northern  slopes,  and  thus 
give  a  greater  degree  of  moisture.  This  holds  good  even  on  the  sides 
of  the  wide  plateau  of  Kashmir,  where  the  slopes  of  the  Pir  Panjal  range 
which  face  northwards  are  clothed  with  forests,  whereas  the  slopes  of 
the  Himalaya  which  bound  the  plain  to  the  north  are  nearly  treeless. 

Soon  after  midday  we  made  our  stage  at  a  place  called  Kaugan. 
Here  we  found  the  equipment  already  deposited  in  a  level  field  surrounded 
by  large  walnut  trees,  where  our  tents  were  not  long  in  setting  up.  We 
were  still  on  the  Kashmir  side  of  the  water-shed,  so,  as  usual  in  the 
afternoon,  a  storm  blew  up,  and  it  rained  until  nightfall. 

After  Kangan  the  path  began  to  climb  more  rapidly,  and  the  scenery 
assumed  a  more  Alpine  aspect.  The  ground  on  the  left  side  of  the  valley 
was  covered  with  snow,  which  sliowed  between  the  firs  and  pines,  and, 


The  Sind   Vallev 


51 


as  our  way  ascended,  reached  down  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  bottom  of 
the  valley.  There  were  no  more  chenars,  but  their  place  was  taken 
by  splendid  walnut  trees,  with  parasitic  orchids  growing  on  the  branches. 
The  commonest  tree  is  the  willow. 

All  this  part  of  the  valley  shows  clear  traces  of  glacial  action.^  The 
whole  of  the  Sind  valley  was  at  one  time  filled  by  a  glacier  more  than 
30  miles  long,  about  the  size  of  the  present  great  glaciers  of  the  Kara- 


THE   CAMP   AT   CJrSD. 


koram.  To-day  there  are  only  a  number  of  small  shrunken  glaciei^s 
in  the  upper  reaches  of  the  tiibutary  valleys.  Oestreich  has  counted 
thirty-three  of  them. 

Our  next  stage  brought  us  to  Gund,  a  village  standing  rather  high 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sind  river,  13  miles  from  Kangan.  Here  we 
left  our  ponies  behind,  as  a  little  farther  up  the  valley  was  still  full  of 
snow,  and   everything   would   have   to   be   carried   by   coolies.     These 


'  See  R.  D.  Oldham,  Note  on  the  Glacintion  and  History  of  the  Sind  Valley,  Kashmir.     Rec. 
Geol.  Surv.  of  India,  31,  1904,  p.  142. 

(0221)  I)  2 


52  (Mia))tc'r  IV'. 

coolies  had  gathered  at  Gmul  from  all  the  villages  in  the  valley — in 
fact,  during  the  moDiing's  march  we  had  passed  numbers  of  them  on 
their  way  up.  There  were  over  250  of  them,  squatting  or  lying  in 
groups  on  the  ground  or  wandering  around  the  camp,  which  they  greatly 
enlivened  by  their  presence.  They  were  all  Kashmiris,  with  bronzed 
faces  and  European  features,  now  and  then  markedly  Semitic  in  type. 
They  had  black  hair  and  flowing  beards,  and  wore  garments  of  puttoo, 
the  coarse  country  home-spun,  with  short  wide  breeches  and  a  sort 
of  coat  with  ample  sleeves  that  reaches  down  to  a  little  above  the  knee. 
Over  the  coat  they  wear  a  woollen  blanket  shawl  like  a  shepherd's 
plaid,  wound  round  the  waist  or  over  the  back.  Their  headgear  consists 
of  a  sort  of  skull  cap,  round  which  is  twisted  turbanwise  a  narrow  strip 
of  white  cotton  cloth  which  has  attained  an  indefinable  shade  between 
dirty  white  and  grey.  Their  feet  are  clad  in  sandals  of  plaited  straw, 
which  they  make  for  themselves  in  spare  moments  and  throw  away 
by  the  roadside  when  worn  out.  Their  legs  are  either  bare  or  covered 
with  puttees. 

All  the  coolies  were  incessantly  interfered  with,  worried  and  kept 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  excitement  l)y  the  numerous  official  escort  which 
was  directing  the  management  of  the  caravan.  I  will  here  devote  a 
few  words  to  this  official  escort,  its  relative  importance  and  usual 
relations  with  the  traveller. 

All  strangers  travelHng  in  the  domains  of  the  Maharajah,  whether 
for  exploration,  for  sport  or  for  mere  pleasure,  must  be  provided  with 
an  official  permit  or  perwanna,  which  is  supplied  by  the  administrative 
authorities  of  each  district.  This  paper  autliorizes  the  traveller  to 
demand  from  the  village  headmen,  with  or  without  the  intervention 
of  higher  officials,  the  necessary  supplies  of  coolies,  saddles,  luggage 
ponies,  provisions,  wood,  etc.,  at  the  legal  tariff  prices,  which  are  always 
specified  upon  a  list  posted  up  at  the  dak-bungalows. 

At  the  top  of  the  official  tree  stands  the  Tehsildar,  who  is  a  real 
prefect,  with  fiscal  functions,  and  who  superintends  the  whole  district 
or  tehsil.  He  is  usually  selected  from  the  official  employes  who  have 
been  trained  in  the  Government  schools  of  India  and  possess  a  certain 
degree  of  culture  and  at  least  a  slight  acquaintance  with  the  EngUsh 
language.  Under  him  there  may  be  a  Naib-Tehsildar,  ruling  sub- 
districts.  Tehsildars  and  Naib-Tehsildars,  like  all  the  employes  of 
the  Central  Government  of  Kashmir,  are  invariably  Hindu.     The  heads 


TIk-  Siiul    \';illey.  53 

of  the  villages  arc  the  Zaildans  or  Lambardars.  The  police  service  is 
managed  by  the  Jemadars  and  their  subordinates  the  C'huprassis, 
whose  duty  it  is  also  to  enforce  the  observation  of  the  forest  and  game 
laws. 

Some  districts  are  still  under  a  Rajah,  who  is  seldom,  however,  a 
descendant  of  the  families  that  ruled  the  country  before  the  conquest, 
these  having  been  nearly  all  deprived  of  their  power.  The  office  is 
hereditary.  They  govern  through  a  AVazir  or  minister,  but  they  are 
subject  to  the  suzerainty  of  the  Maharajah,  and  in  fiscal  matters  are 
answerable  to  the  Tehsildar. 

The  traveller  usually  brings  with  him  a  Shikari,  who  treats  on  his 
behalf  with  the  Jemadar  and  with  the  Zaildar  or  Lambardar,  and 
notifies  these  officials  of  the  requirements  of  the  party.  The  Shikari 
is  likewise  responsible  for  discipline  and  order  among  the  coolies,  pony 
drivers,  etc.,  and  upon  him  depend  mainly  the  relations  between  the 
traveller  and  the  natives.  The  majority  of  the  Europeans  who  travel 
in  the  dominions  of  Kashmir  come  purely  for  sport,  so  the  Shikari  is 
usually  a  man  famiUar  with  the  country  from  the  point  of  view  of  game. 
He  knows  the  best  nullahs  and  the  habits  of  the  bears,  leopards,  ibexes, 
markhor,  oris  poli  and  other  wild  animals  which  inhabit  the  western 
Himalaya.  Our  Shikari  Abdullah  had  gone  on  before,  and  was  already 
at  Dras  with  Mr.  Baines,  so  we  did  the  first  part  of  the  journey  without 
him.  We  did  not  miss  him,  as  the  expedition  was  accompanied  the 
whole  way  up  the  Sind  valley  by  the  escort,  which  comprised  all  the 
categories  of  functionaries  I  have  just  mentioned.  There  was  a  general 
superintendent,  Baboo  Fagir  Mohamed,  who  was  inteUigent,  silent  and 
had  verv  great  authority.  There  was  the  Naib-Tehsildar  Munshi 
Ghullam  Haider  Khan,  a  sort  of  ferocious-looking  Othello  in  a  fanciful 
jacket  of  olive-green  with  cuffs  and  collar  of  fur,  which  made  him  look 
rather  like  a  lion  tamer  at  a  fair.  The  interpreter  was  a  fat  giant  with 
bloodshot  eyes  and  an  apoplectic  face  with  a  fringe  of  beard  dyed  with 
henna.  There  was  a  Jemadar  or  police  official,  and  under  his  orders 
were  five  Chuprassis,  in  addition  to  the  Zaildar  of  Gunderbal  and  the 
Lambardars  of  the  villages  from  which  the  coolies  came. 

The  chief  officials  took  their  orders  from  the  Duke  and  transmitted 
them  in  regular  hierarchical  order.  In  spite  of  these  complicated 
arrangements  the  functions  of  the  caravan  were  carried  out  with  great 
regularity  and  precision  and  perfect  discipline. 

(9221)  n  .3 


.14 


Chapter   IV 


The  day  was  cloudy  and  cool,  with  a  few  intervals  of  hot  sunshine. 
The  afternoon  was  laborious.  We  had  to  pay  and  dismiss  the  pony 
drivers  who  had  come  fiom  Gunderbal — two  stages  at  half  a  rupee 
per  stage  and  per  horse.  The  intermediaries  are  so  numerous  that 
the  best  policy  is  to  pay  the  coolies  direct  in  person  and  one  by  one. 
This  system  is  being  generally  adopted  by  European  travellers,  who 


THE   MONEY   KILTAS,    AND   PAYING   THE   COOLIES. 

used  to  trust  to  the  Tehsildar  or  Lambardar  to  divide  the  sum  between 
the  men.  The  Duke  had  decided  to  follow  the  method  adopted  by  the 
Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition,  of  giving  each  coolie  a  numbered 
metal  counter,  which  he  has  to  hand  in  against  his  wages.  This  enabled 
the  payments  to  proceed  rapidly,  and  made  the  supervision  simple  and 
easy.  The  chief  drawback  was  the  necessity  of  carrying  an  immense 
weight  of  money  divided  into  single  rupees  and  fractions  of  rupees.  Our 
small  change  occupied  nine  kiltas  and  weighed  over  450  lbs. 


TIr'  Siiul   \'alley.  55 

The  Duke  always  superintended  the  arranging  and  counting  of  the 
higgage  :  171  packages  were  distributed  among  the  same  number  of 
coolies,  who  left  at  once  so  as  to  divide  the  party  and  make  its  move- 
ments quicker.  As  each  coolie  passes  with  his  load  he  receives  his 
numbered  counter.  All  round  us  stands  the  crowd  of  those  who  are 
waiting  for  their  turn.  Some  of  them  seem  to  be  about  seventy  years 
old,  and  some  who  really  look  too  old  for  work  we  are  obliged  to  set 
aside.  And  yet  these  men,  in  addition  to  their  50  or  55  lb.  load,  carry 
in  a  skin  bag  their  own  food  for  the  whole  journey  from  here  to  Dras 
and  back — at  least  another  22  lbs.  of  rice  or  flour.  This  makes  a  total 
of  75  or  80  lbs.  to  be  carried  through  the  snow  over  the  Zoji  La. 

The  great  number  of  volunteers  who  rushed  to  the  spot  is  to  be 
explained  by  the  extraordinary  wages  of  a  whole  rupee  a  day,  which 
the  Kashmir  Government  allows  coolies  for  crossing  the  Zoji  La  in  the 
winter  or  spring,  a  wage  intended  as  a  compensation  for  the  danger  of 
avalanches  and  the  fatigue  of  walking  through  the  deep  snow  instead 
of  on  an  easy  path  as  in  summer.  The  usual  tariff  is  from  4  to  6  annas 
a  day — from  4d.  to  6(1. — without  food. 

The  loads,  kiltas,  boxes  of  provisions,  sleeping-bags,  bundles  of 
tents,  camp-beds,  etc.,  are  placed  upon  primitive  carrying  devices,  which 
consist  of  four  upright  poles  fixed  to  the  corners  of  a  narrow  rectangular 
base.  Two  ropes  serve  to  fasten  it  over  the  shoulders.  Tlio  coohe's 
step  is  elastic  and  quick,  even  up-hill.  He  makes  short  halts  to  get  his 
breath,  more  or  less  often  according  to  the  difficulties  of  the  road. 
During  these  brief  halts  he  lifts  his  load  off  his  back,  resting  it  on  a  sort 
of  crutch  formed  by  a  short  pole,  furnished  at  the  toj)  with  a  wide  flat 
support  and  at  the  bottom  with  a  broad  wooden  foot,  in  order  that  it 
may  not  sink  in  the  soil. 

After  the  daily  storm  comes  the  usual  clear  eveniiig.  By  half-past 
eight  the  whole  camp  is  at  rest.  Near  the  kiltas  which  contain  the 
treasury  of  small  change  the  chuprassi  on  guard  watches  in  solitude, 
squatting  on  his  heels  before  a  few  smouldering  sticks  and  well  wrapped 
up  in  his  woollen  plaid.  The  roar  of  the  torrent  comes  uj)  from  far 
below.  Eastward  the  valley  rises  steep  and  straight,  then  suddenly 
disappears  from  sight  behind  a  spur.  The  slopes  above  us  glitter  with 
snow.     We  feel  that  we  are  at  the  gates  of  the  mountain. 

The  following  days  were  an  interlude  of  high  mountain  life  between 
the  green  garden  of  Kashmir  and  the  parched  and  torrid  valleys  of  the 

(9221)  D  4 


56 


Chapter  TA' 


Indus  basin.  From  Gund  onward  the  caravan  coasisted  of  over  270 
persons,  counting  the  officials,  coolies  and  servants.  171  coolies  had 
left  Gund  on  the  day  of  our  arrival,  and  100  remained  with  us. 

For  a  few  hours  the  path  led  as  before  between  willows  and  fruit 
trees,  mingled  with  fir  and  pine.  But  now,  httle  by  little,  the  ascent 
becomes  steeper,  and  the  mountains  draw  near  and  become  more 
precipitous.     The  springlike  aspect  of  the  valley  disappears  to  make 


THE   SIND    VALLEY    BEYOND   OUND. 


way  for  a  winter  scene.  At  the  foot  of  each  lateral  gully  or  ravine  the 
accumulations  of  snow  become  wider  and  more  fiequent.  Next  the 
valley  is  cut  across  by  a  great  step  at  the  gorge  of  Gagangir,  which  is 
piled  up  with  boulders.  Here  the  torrent  dashes  wildly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  gorge,  where  it  is  hidden  by  vast  snow  avalanches,  which  bridge 
it  over  often  10  or  20  feet  deep,  and  which  here  and  there  are  covered 
with  fresh  avalanches  fallen,  a  few  days  before,  and  not  yet  flattened 
by  melting  or  blackened  with  dust.  The  road  now  passes  high  up  on 
the  right  flank  of  the  valley,  through  a  little  wood  of  deciduous  trees, 
whose  buds  are  just  beginning  to  swell,  though  the  path  is  quite  hidden 
away  under  snow.     On  our  march  we  are  surprised  at  passing  some  of 


The  Sind   Valley, 


57 


the  coolies  whom  we  had  thought  it  our  duty  to  reject  on  the  preceding 
day  because  they  looked  to  be  about  100  years  old.  The  poor  old 
fellows  must  have  bought  back  the  engagement  from  the  younger  men 
we  had  selected  in  their  places,  and  thus  thwarted  our  intentions. 

From  the  gorge  of  Gagangir  we  come  out  upon  a  small  level  and 
cross  the  Sind  valley  to  the  left  bank.  We  then  climb  over  the  ridge 
of  a  moraine  formation  clothed  with  conifers  and  reach  the  wide  plateau 


THE   GORGE   OF   GAGANGIR. 


of  Sonamarg,  which  is  treeless  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  haid  .snow 
about  three  feet  deep.  ^  The  plateau  is  nearly  two  miles  broad,  and  at  the 
upper  end  stands  the  Sonamarg  bungalow,  about  142  niiles  from  Gund. 
We  have  now  reached  a  height  of  8,763  feet.  The  sky  had  been  over- 
clouded all  day,  and  it  now  began  to  rain.  The  temperature  was  only 
41°  F.  Little  glaciers  were  jixst  visible  through  the  mist  on  the  left 
of  the  valley,  the  lower  part  of  which  was  clothed  with  pine  woods. 

■  Thorc  must  be  great  variation  from  one  year  to  another  in  ti»e  .snowfall  of  this  region. 
When  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition  travelled  by  the  same  road  at  about  the  same 
season  in  1902  there  was  far  less  snow  in  the  Sind  valley,  on  the  Zoji  I^i  and  in  the  (lumber 
valley.     See  the  illustrations  of  Guillarmod's  book  as  compared  with  our  own. 


58 


Chapter  IV^ 


It  was  a  characteristic  Alpine  winter  scene,  sad,  monotonous  and 
grey,  with  a  rainy  atmosphere  melting  into  the  snow  of  the  plain.  It 
seemed  incredible  that  before  many  weeks  passed  the  place  would  turn 
into  a  great  green  meadow  starred  with  golden  crocus,  and  with  the 
fringe  of  the  surrounding  forest  dotted  with  the  camps  of  English  people, 
whom  the  heat  of  the  Kashmir  summer  drives  up  into  the  cooler  air. 

We  took  refuge  in  the  bungalow,  consisting  of  a  square  courtyard 
full  of  trampled  snow  and  mud,  on  three  sides  of  which  runs  a  verandah. 


THE   SrMD    VALLEY    BETWEEN"   SOVAMARG    AND    BALTAI_ 


on  which  open  the  doors  of  the  sleeping  rooms.  Two  of  these  are  empty 
and  reserved  for  Europeans,  and  here  we  spread  our  camp-beds.  The 
others  are  filthy  barracks  for  the  use  of  the  coolies. 

Shortly  after  our  arrival  the  171  coolies  who  formed  the  first 
detachment  began  to  pass  through.  They  had  spent  the  night  half- 
way between  Gund  and  Sonamarg,  and  were  now  going  on  to  Baltal. 
Next  came  dropping  in  in  small  detachments  the  coolies  who  marched 
with  us.  The  courtyard  and  verandah  were  soon  filled  with  them. 
They  formed  groups  around  the  fires  which  they  hghted  here  and  there 
in  the  mud,  under  kettles  where  the  tea  was  boiling.,  in  which  they  soak 


The  Sincl  Valley.  59 

their  small  loaves  or  chupattis.  They  are  wonderfully  dirty  and  very 
good-natured  looking,  and  they  smile  at  us  in  a  friendly  way. 

The  Sonamarg  bungalow  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sind  River. 
On  the  right  bank  beyond  the  bridge  stands  the  tiny  village,  the  highest 
in  the  whole  valley.  There  is  a  small  house  for  the  post  and  one  for  the 
telegraph.  Close  by  is  the  meteorological  station,  which  is  supplied 
with  a  few  instruments.  There  are  also  thi'ee  or  four  huts  built  of 
tree  tnmks,  all  crooked  and  apparently  on  the  jjoint  of  tumbling  to 
pieces.  The  place  seems  almost  deserted,  and  it  is  a  surprise  to  us  to 
find  plenty  of  fresh  milk,  sheep,  fowls,  and  eggs,  which  provisions  we 
shall  continue  to  find,  with  but  few  exceptions,  at  each  stage  of  our 
march  through  the  valleys.  This  fiesh  food  forms  the  basis  of  our 
diet,  which  is  completed  by  our  provision  tins,  containing  ship's  biscuit, 
butter,  soups,  vegetables,  fruits,  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  condiments,  etc. 

The  meteorological  office  in  these  remote  stations  is  usually  entrusted 
to  the  telegraph  clerk,  who  takes  the  observations  twice  a  day.  AVe 
were  greatly  interested  in  collecting  the  data  of  these  Httle  Alpine 
stations,  they  being  necessary  to  calculate  the  observations  to  be  taken 
by  the  expedition  later  on,  in  the  high  mountains.  It  was  very  desirable 
to  have  the  observations  taken  three  times  a  day,  so  as  to  get  a  greater 
probabihty  of  their  being  at  the  same  time  as  ours.  The  Duke  therefore 
arranged  with  the  telegraph  official  to  read  the  meteorological  instruments 
daily  at  8  and  10  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  at  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
from  that  day  to  the  end  of  Augast.  Similar  arrangements  were  made 
at  the  meteorological  stations  of  Srinagar,  Gilgit,  Leh  and  Skardu. 

On  the  morning  of  April  27th  we  accomplished  the  short  stage  f'om 
Sonamarg  to  Baltal,  which  is  at  the  foot  of  the  Zoji  La,  in  a  melancholy 
fine  rain  with  a  low  mist,  which  completely  shut  out  the  slopes  and  peaks. 
This  stage  is  only  9  miles  over  a  good  track,  well  beaten  in  the  snow. 
The  path  leads  now  high  on  the  right  side  of  the  Sind  valley,  where 
the  orange-yellow  crocuses  (ColcJmnim  Ivteiim  Bak.)  have  akeady  come 
pluckily  into  blossom  wherever  a  bit  of  land  is  bare  of  snow  ;  and 
again,  along  the  bottom  of  the  valley  through  httle  groves  of  pine,  fir 
and  birch.  We  keep  overtaking  and  passing  groups  of  coohes  who 
left  Sonamarg  before  us  ;  but  we  ourselves  are  caught  up  with  and  left 
behind  by  the  dak-wallah,  who  runs  up-hill  over  the  snow,  carrying  the 
postbag  and  his  own  blankets  and  food,  with  his  Avhole  body  and  mind 
bent  on  the  exertion,  so  great  a  one  that  it  hardly  seems  possible  he 


6U 


Cluipter    I\  . 


can  go  on  for  more  than  a  few  minutes.  He  is  armed  witli  a  spear  with 
a  shrill-tongued  bell  tied  to  the  shaft,  to  frighten  away  wild  animals. 
By  relays  of  these  dak  runners  the  weekly  post  goes  all  the  way  from 
Srinagar  to  Leh  and  Skardu,  covering  on  an  average  some  30  miles  a  day. 

Excejit  for  this  lonely 
wayfarer  our  expedition  w'as 
quite  alone  in  the  high  valley 
of  the  Sind.  Once  the  snow  is 
gone,  there  is  a  ceaseless 
coming  and  going  of  caravans 
of  Baltis,  Ladakhis,  Tartars 
from  Chinese  Turkestan  and 
Tibetans,  often  accompanied 
by  tlieir  wives,  their  flocks 
and  their  herds,  and  leading 
horses  or  yaks  laden  with 
merchandise,  crossing  and 
recrossing  the  Himalaya  over 
this,  the  only  trade  route 
between  Tibet  and  Kashgar 
on  one  side  and  Kashmir, 
Afghanistan  and  Persia  on  the 
other. 

Baltal  stands  9,258  feet 
above  the  sea  leveP  at  the 
foot  of  a  perpendicular  spur 
of  the  Kanipatri  group,  which 
dominates  the  Zoji  La  to 
the  south.  Here  the  Sind  valley  bifurcates.  The  greater  branch, 
through  which  the  Panjtarni  torrent  flows,  runs  south-east ;  the  other 
is  a  short,  steep  gorge,  which  leads  to  the  pass  and  carries  on  the  general 
trend  of  the  Sind  valley  towards  the  east.  Both  are  deep  gorges  with 
precipitous  sides  much  broken  up  by  landslides.  In  the  angle  formed 
by  the  meeting-place  of  the  Panjtarni  torrent  with  the  stream  that  comes 
down  from  the  Zoji  La.  is  a  small  plateau  with  a  grove  of  sycamores, 
birches,  poplar  and  willow  trees,  mingled  with  several  sorts  of  conifers. 


NEAR    BALTAL. 


'  Hypsometric  measurement  calculated  with  tour  stations  of  reference. 
Baltal  a  height  of  9,321  feet ;  Oestreich  9,350  feet. 


Schlagintweit  gives 


The  Sind   \'alley.  ci 

Here  stands  a  new,  roomy  bungalow,  where  caravans  can  dwell  at  ease, 
to  give  time  to  the  new-fallen  snow  either  to  be  hardened  by  frost  or  to 
fall  in  avalanches,  before  attempting  the  dangerous  pass. 

Mr.  Baines  had  sent  thirty  Balti  coolies  from  Dras  to  meet  us,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  head  Shikari  Abdullah,  so  as  to  beat  the  path  over 
the  snow  on  the  hills  and  to  help  our  Kashmiris  with  the  loads.  Thus 
there  were  over  300  coolies  gathered  at    Baltal    and    lodged  partly  in 


THE   BUNGALOW    AT    BALTAL. 


huts  around  the  bungalow  and  partly  in  the  old  bungalow  on  the  other 
bank  of  the  torrent.  They  were  all  very  busy  plaiting  themselves 
straw  shoes.  From  Sonamarg  onward  the  Duke  had  smoked  spectacles 
distributed  among  those  of  the  coolies  who  appeared  to  suffer  from  the 
reverberation  of  the  snow.  We  reviewed  them  again  one  by  one,  and 
about  half  of  them  were  provided  with  dark  glasses  for  the  journey  of  the 
morrow. 

All  through  the  afternoon  showers  of  fine  snow  kejit  falling  like 
waterfalls  off  the  rocky  spur  of  Kanipatri  in  the  rear  of  the  bungalow. 
In  the  clear  evening  light  we  could  distinguish  the  deep  walls  of  the 
valleys  furrowed  with  gulUes  and  chinmeys  between  sharp  ridges  ending 
in  spires,  aiguilles  and  peaks,  covered  with  virgin  snow.  From  the 
Panjtarni  valley  a  dizzy  ridge  leads  up  to  the  fine  peak  of  Ambarnath, 
above  17,000  feet  in  height.     It  all  seemed  quite  inaccessible,  but  it 


62 


CMuipter  IV. 


must  look  very  different  in  the  summertime.  Later  in  the  evening 
a  great  landsHde  fell  from  a  considerable  height  from  the  wall  of  the 
Zoji  La  valley,  and  hurled  itself  down  with  a  thundering  sound,  rolling 
down  earth,  stones  and  snow,  which  spread  out  in  a  gigantic  fan,  covering 
the  path  up  to  the  pass  for  a  long  distance.  The  mountain  wall  above 
is  left  scarred  by  a  wide  gash  that  stands  out  conspicuous  amid  the 
spotless  snows  surrounding  it. 


THE    MOUTH   OI'    THE    ZOJI    LA,    FROM    BALTAL. 


We  went  to  bed  for  a  few  hours  only,  for  the  ascent  must  be  made 
before  the  sun  rises  to  melt  the  bonds  of  frost  which  hold  the  snow  fast 
upon  the  slopes. 


CHAPTER  V. 


ZOJI    LA. 


Ethnological  and  Commercial  Importance.  —  The  Gorge  of  Baltal.  —  The  Pass  in  Summer. — 
Geology.  —  The  Gumber  Valley.  —  The  Metjuhoy  (Glacier.  —  Minimurg.  —  The  Plateau 
of  Mutajun.  —  Pandras.  —  The  Last  Gorges  of  the  Valley.  —  The  Dras  Basin.  —  Fort  and 
Bungalow.  —  Population.  —  Farewell  to  Kashmir. 

Zoji  La  is  the  Tibetan  name 
of  a  pass  wMch  has  the  greatest 
historical  and  commercial  im- 
portance. It  is  11,230  feet  above 
sea  level,  ^  and  is  the  lowest  point 
in  the  Himalayan  ridge  between 
the  Indus  valley  and  the  vale  of 
Kashmir.  From  time  immemorial 
it  has  been  the  great  trade  route 
between  Chinese  Turkestan  and 
Tibet  on  one  hand,  and  India  on 
the  other.  It  was  by  this  gate 
that  the  Sikhs  invaded  and  con- 
quered Ladakh  and  Baltistan  in 
the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  telegraph  connect- 
ing Srinagar  with  Leh,  the  capital 
of  Ladakh,  and  Skardu,  the  capital  of  Baltistan,  crosses  the  Zoji  La. 
Once  a  week  all  the  year  round  the  post  rumier  crosses  it  with  his  bag ; 
but  for  five  months  at  least  it  is  quite  blocked  to  beasts  of  burden, 
horses  or  yaks,  and  it  is  often  extremely  dangerous,  even  if  not  absolutely 
impracticable,  for  parties  of  coolies.  Many  a  caravan  has  perished 
there  of  cold  and  exhaustion,  lost  in  the  bewildering  tunmlts  of  snow 


•  According  to  Burrard  the  height  is  11,300  feet.  Oestreich  gives  11,319.  Guillarmod, 
owing  evidently  to  a  scribal  error,  calls  it  "  au  de.s.sus  des  WOO  metres"'  (about  17,000  feet) 
(op.  cit.  pp.  75-80,  and  at  foot  of  illustration  on  p.  79). 


(;4 


Chapter  V. 


which  are  common  in  winter  and  spring.  Still  more  immerous  are  the 
victims  of  the  avalanches  which  pile  up  vast  deposits  of  snow  in  the 
gorge  of  Baltal.  This  snow  often  remains  until  late  in  the  summer, 
and  occasionally  does  not  entirely  melt  before  the  following  autumn. 

The  crossing  of  the  pass  in  April  with  a  party  of  over  300  coolies  was 
an  undertaking  by  no  means  free  from  anxiety.  We  left  Baltal  bungalow 
on  the  28th  before  dawn.  The  night  was  dark,  the  sky  clouded,  and 
a   fine   rain   was   falling.     The   air  was   heavy   and   warmish,   just   the 


,4^       •     -»^ 


}m 


>W»ll«M»H»»' 


THE    ZOJI    LA. 


weathei'  for  avalanches.  We  stopped  for  a  few  minutes  at  the  old 
bungalow  beyond  the  torrent  to  see  the  last  of  the  coolies  ofT  ;  then 
we  started  up  the  narrow  gorge  which  leads  to  the  pass. 

On  the  short  level  at  the  foot  of  the  steep  ascent  we  got  ahead  of 
nearly  all  the  coolies,  who  were  toihng  through  the  soft  snow,  stopping 
for  breath  every  200  yards.  The  sight  was  an  indescribable  one,  weird 
and  fantastic  as  a  scene  in  the  wildest  legend.  As  w-e  plodded  along  the 
track  at  the  even  gait  of  the  mountaineer,  our  lanterns  threw  an  unearthly 
hght  on  the  features  of  the  coohes  resting  in  long  files,  with  the  shape- 
less loads  upon  the  crutch  at  their  backs,  transforming  them  into  strange 


Zdii   La. 


Co 


hump-backed  dwarfs.  An  immense  length  of  black  shadow  stretched 
behind  them  on  the  snow.  The  ceaseless  murmur  of  voices  and  confused 
shouting  came  to  our  ears  from  the  farther  groups,  who  moved  restlessly 
and  dimly  in  the  feeble  light  frorn  the  lanterns,  like  men  lost  and  astray 
in  some  dreadful  gulf  shut  off  on  every  side  by  towering  cliffs.  As  for 
the  surroundings,  we  could  hardly  distinguish  the  faint  glimmer  of  the 
snow  on  the  lower  rocks.  Higher  up  it  melted  altogether  into  the 
sombre  atmosphere,  beneath  the  unrelieved  blackness  of  the  inky  sky. 


THE    TOP   OF   THE    PASS. 


The  way  ascended  straight  up  the  gorge  over  the  fallen  av:ilanches, 
with  which  it  was  filled  up.  The  Shikari  Abdullah  led  the  way  along 
the  steep  track,  which  ran  in  zig-zags  across  the  snow  slope,  and  kept 
urging  us  to  quicken  our  steps,  especially  at  points  where  big  stones 
and  tell-tale  lumps  of  hardened  snow  marked  fresh  falls  from  the  over- 
hanging cliffs.  We  followed  in  silence,  breathing  hard  from  the  quick 
measure  of  the  pace,  which  was  c[uite  out  of  proportion  to  the  gradient 
of  the  climb,  and  keeping  close  together  to  make  the  most  of  the  scanty 
light  of  our  two  lanterns. 

(9221)  E 


66 


(Uiaptor  V. 


This  account  must  be  difficult  of  belief  to  those  who  have  crossed 
the  col  in  the  summer  months,  when  it  is  a  pleasant  trip  to  ride  over 
on  the  easy,  clean-cut  path  which  traverses  the  side  of  the  valley  well 
above  the  rocks  which  overhang  the  right  side  of  the  gorge. 

In  two  hours  we  reached  the  top.  The  steep  ascent  suddenly 
stopped,  and  we  entered  a  sort  of  corridor  about  500  yards  wide,  full 
of  snow  and  walled  in  by  mountains  from  14,000  to  17,000  feet  high — so 
level,  that  we  went  on  for  about  half  a  mile  without  noticing  where  the 


THE    rPPER   CUMBER   VALLEY. 


water-shed  came.  When  the  snows  are  gone  there  are  pleasant  meadows 
here,  and  in  the  middle  a  little  lake  fed  by  springs,  which  swell  so  high 
during  the  melting  of  the  snows  as  to  overflow  on  both  slopes  (Roero 
di  Cortanze)  ;  but  at  low  water  in  summer  it  has  only  one  outlet,  which 
runs  northward  to  form  the  source  of  the  Gumber  torrent. 

These  curious  features  have  drawn  the  attention  of  geologists  to 
the  Zoji  La.  Burrard  and  Hayden  are  of  opinion  that  the  indentation 
was  cut  through  the  ridge  by  a  prehistoric  river.  Oestreich  finds  in  it 
a  proof  of  the  progressive  erosion  of  the  Baltal  gorge,  accompanied 
by  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  the  water-shed  line.  The  Zoji  La  is,  in 
fact,  often  quoted  as  a  conspicuous  example  of  the  type  of  erosion 


Zoji  La.  07 

known  as  "  back-cutting."  a  process  which  may  ultimately  result  in  the 
complete  cutting  through  of  a  range,  and  concerning  which  I  shall  have 
a  few  words  to  say  farther  on. 

We  reached  the  pass  at  dawn.  Here  the  rain  was  replaced  by  sleet, 
which  during  the  night  had  deposited  a  layer  of  some  four  inches  of  ice 
crystals  on  top  of  the  old  snow.  The  misty  and  hesitating  dawTi  was 
followed  by  a  glorious  day,  and  the  outhnes  of  the  mountains  grew  clear 
and  hard  against  the  perfect  limpidity  of  the  sky. 


GOING    DOWN   TO    Ml'TAJUX. 


The  level  passage  at  the  top  of  the  pass  runs  some  mile  and  a  half 
northward  almost  without  a  slope.  Then  it  bends  gently  eastward 
and  widens  out  into  the  real  Gumber  valley,  which  is  ample  and  level, 
a  perfect  specimen  of  a  round-bottomed  valley.  Full  of  snow  as  it  now 
was  and  altogether  treeless,  it  had  the  appearance  of  a  glacial  valley. 
A  little  lower  down  the  thick  floor  of  snow  was  broken  through  here 
and  there,  leaving  short  reaches  of  the  torrent  exposed.  The  descent 
is  broken  into  low  steps  dividing  level  terraces,  and  the  whole  drop 
is  very  small.  Some  four  miles  from  the  pass  we  cross  under  the  foot  of 
the  Metjuhoy  glacier,  which  falls  from  the  Kanipatri  and  ends  not  far 
fi'om  the  path  at  an  altitude  of  about  10,800  feet.  A  httle  farther  on, 
on  the  ridge  of  the  spur,  is  the  bungalow  of  Minimurg.  the  highest  in 

(9221)  r.  -2 


68  ("hiipti'i-   V. 

the  valley.  Here  we  found  nulk  and  eggs  which  Mr.  Baines  had 
thoughtfully  sent  up  for  us.  We  rested  about  an  hour,  admiring  the 
northern  glaciers  of  the  Kanipatri  group  ;  then  we  proceeded  leisurely  on 
our  way  to  the  Mutajun  bungalow,  about  four  niiles  farther  down,  which 
makes  a  better  division  of  the  distance  between  Baltal  and  Dras.  The 
Duke  prudently  lost  no  time  on  the  way,  and  kept  far  ahead  of  us  all. 
AVe  paid  for  our  lazy  and  intermittent  march  by  having  to  go  through 
the  soft  snow  exposed  to  the  intense  reverberation  of  the  sun.  which 
gave  a  sense  of  unendurable  heat,  though  the  actual  temperature  was 
about  24°  F. 

A  succession  of  level  bits  and  short  descents  brought  us  to  a  vast  flat 
reach  of  valley  shrouded  in  a  sheet  of  snow,  and  crossed  by  the  telegraph 
wire  stretched  on  a  straight  line  of  posts  which  the  track  follows.  ^ 

The  path  led  past  the  middle  of  the  plain  to  a  group  of  hovels,  so  low 
that  a  cow  had  climbed  on  to  the  roof  of  one  of  them  and  stood  gazing 
disconsolately  from  her  vantage  point  upon  the  heavy  cloak  of  snow 
covering  the  pastures.  In  the  muddy  square  between  the  hovels 
other  cows  and  a  pony,  all  extremely  thin,  wandered  aimlessly. 
A  dozen  natives,  men  and  children,  wretched,  ragged  and  mud-covered, 
watched  our  passage  with  indifference.  Such  is  the  village  of  Mutajun, 
over  10,000  feet  in  altitude.  A  hundred  yards  farther  on,  beyond  a 
small  torrent,  stands  the  bungalow,  which  we  reached  with  joy  towards 
2  o'clock,  and  found  the  Duke  had  got  there  two  hours  before  us.  Upon 
a  ridge  1,500  feet  above  us  stands  a  little  group  of  stunted  birches. 
These  are  the  only  trees  in  sight.  The  sharp  eyes  of  the  Shikari  discovered 
on  the  rocks  of  the  nearer  hills  several  ibexes,  the  chamois  of  the 
Himalaya.     We  looked  at  them  with  interest. 

All  through  the  afternoon  the  coolies  kept  dropping  in,  weary  with 
the  laborious  day's  march,  and  coming  in  numbers  to  ask  for  medicine 
for  headache,  sUght  sun-blindness  and  other  trivial  complaints.  We  all 
agreed  in  estimating  the  march  at  18  miles  at  least,  notwithstanding 
guides  and  route  books,  which  give  it  as  15  miles.  Owing  to  the  deep 
snow  we  left  again  before  dawn  on  the  following  day,  April  29th,  so 

'  III  the  wliole  of  the  Guraber  valley  the  telegraph  line  has  been  set  up  aecordinj;  to  the 
usual  rules  with  telegraph  posts,  insulators,  etc.,  and  must  have  been  entirely  rebuilt  since  1902, 
when  Guillarmod  found  the  wire  "  accroche  a  n'importe  quoi,  un  tronc  mort,  une  branche 
d'arbre(?) — souvent  mcme  .  .  .  pose  sur  la  neige,  ou  reconvert  par  ello  "  (op.  cit.  p.  78).  Only 
at  certain  points  of  the  Dras  and  Indus  valleys  did  we  find  the  wire  merely  tied  to  the  posts 
without  insulators. 


Zoji  La. 


u9 


as  to  make  the  most  of  the  colder  hours.     We  crossed  the  rest  of  the 

plain  of  Mutajun  and  entered  a  long,  winding  narrow  part  of  the  valley, 

where  at  several  points  at  the  foot  of  the  rocks  which  reflect  the  heat 

of  the  sun  were  bits  of  path  quite  free  from  snow.     Again  the  valley  grew 

wider,  and  we  passed  the  village 

of    Pandras,  which    appeared 

to    be    uninhabited    with    the 

exception  of  one  young  yak, 

wandering  in  the  empty  alleys 

between  the  houses.     A  little 

hay  from  the  preceding  year 

was  still  piled  on  the  flat  roofs 

of  the  houses. 

Next  comes  another  long 
defile,  a  series  of  narrow 
gorges  which  mark  the  end 
of   the   Gumber  valley.     The 

snow  grew  gradually  less.  As  we  turned  a  corner  we  saw  before  us  a 
group  of  saddle-ponies,  which  had  been  brought  by  Mr.  Baines  to  meet 
the  expedition.  We  mounted,  and  soon  entered  the  great  basin  of  Dras,  a 
wade  plain  surrounded  by  rocky  mountains  covered  with  snow  to  the  very 
foot,  which  gave  it  the  imposing  appearance  of  a  high  Alpine  valley. 

Torrents  flow  down   on   every  side,   cutting  deep  channels  in  the 

alluvial  soil  of  the  plain,  where  they  meet  to  form  the  river  Dras.      The 

plain   is   dotted   with   springs   and   fountains.     Along   the   foot  of  the 

mountains  stretch  great  alluvial  banks,  which  rise  to  a  great  height 

over  the  valley,  reminding  us  of  the  karewas  of  the  Kashmir  plain.     In 

the  very  midst  of  the  valley,  conspicuous  from  all  sides,  stands  an 

isolated  square  fort,  with  towers  at  the  corners.     This  is  a  relic  of  the 

Sikh    conquest.      Only    the    outer    waUs    still    stand,    though    partly 

dilapidated,  built  out  of  round  pebbles  embedded  in  mud.     The  plain 

is  scattered  with  groups  of  houses,  and  other  villages  perch  hke  the 

rocche  of  the  Roman  campagna  upon  the  margins  of  the  alluvial  banks. 

The  houses  are  all  flat-roofed,  with  thick  stone  walls  the  colour  of  the 

soil   and   small   windows   like   loopholes,   few   and   far   between.     The 

alluvial  terraces  with  their  level  tops  and  their  steep  regular  flanks,  like 

an  escarpment,  give  the  impression  of  huge  earthworks  and  bastions. 

The  whole  has  the  look  of  a  gigantic  fortification. 

(9221)  K  :j 


70 


C'lia])ter  V. 


The  country  is  arid  and  treeless.  A  few  hundred  feet  from  the  fort 
stands  a  little  group  of  poplar  trees  with  a  wall  around  it.  Close  by 
are  some  half-dozen  huts,  among  them  the  post  and  telegraph  office 
and  the  meteorological  station. 

The  dak  bungalow  reminds  one  of  a  Swiss  chalet,  with  the  chimneys 
in  its  roof  and  no  verandah,  obAnously  built  to  protect  rather  from  the 
cold  than  from  the  heat.     It  stands  a  little  way  up  on  the  left  side  of 


THE    FORT    AT    DKAS. 


the  valley,  on  a  level  open  space.  We  reached  it  at  about  10  o'clock 
with  appetites  worthy  of  the  excellent  breakfast  Mr.  Baines  had  had 
prepared  for  us. 

After  breakfast  we  came  out  to  the  open  space  before  the  bungalow 
to  wait  for  our  coolies.  Our  arrival  had  been  the  signal  for  the  gathering 
together  of  all  the  natives  of  the  place,  and  we  were  immediately  struck 
by  the  variety  of  types.  The  fact  is  that  the  population  of  Dras  is  a 
mixture  of  Kashmiris,  Baltis  and  Brokpas  of  the  Dard  stock,  with 
Ladakhis,  who  are  Mongolians.  Their  chief  occupation  consists  in  acting 
as  porters  to  caravans  which  cross  the  Zoji  La,  as  the  resources  of  the 
country  are  too  scanty  to  maintain  them.  The  crops  are  wretched, 
in  spite  of  the  abundant  natural  irrigation  of  the  valley,  because  the 
altitude — 10,060  feet  above  sea  level — causes  extreme  excesses  of 
climate  :  long,  cold  winters  and  summers  with  burning  days  and  chilly 


Zoji  I.,ji. 


71 


nights.  The  greatest  source  of  wealth  are  the  cattle,  which  flourish  owing 
to  the  abundance  of  fodder,  consisting  of  a  plant  called  prangos,  that 
grows  for  a  great  distance  up  the  mountain  sides  and  in  sufficient 
cjuantity  to  feed  the  cattle  throughout  the  winter. 

A  couple  of  hours  after  our  arrival  the  coolies  began  to  come  in. 
The  loads  were  now  sorted  out  and  once  more  counted.  Then  we 
proceeded  to  the  payment.  Every  cooHe  got  four  rupees  and  four  annas  for 


THE    BUXGAIXJW. 


his  services  from  Crund,  and  had  to  return  the  metal  counter  and  smoked 
spectacles.  A  caravan  of  ponies  was  next  formed  and  loaded  with 
120  of  the  packages,  which  were  sent  straight  on,  on  the  Skardu  route. 
A  wintry  wind  blew  all  day.  Only  a  few  crows  and  magpies  hopped 
around  the  bungalow. 

We  were  kept  busy  until  late  in  the  evening  writing  cits  for  the 
officials,  great  and  small,  who  had  accompanied  us  hither.  They  all 
wanted  one,  and  begged  for  it  with  such  insistence  that  we  were  finallv 
obliged  to  establish  hierarchical  limits,  beyond  which  we  refused  to 
satisfy  their  greed,  in  order  not  to  spend  the  night  writing  cits.  This 
was  our  final  farewell  to  Kashmir. 


(9221) 


E  4 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE    DRAS    VALLEY. 


The  Contrast  between  the  Kiishiiiir  and  tlie  Trans-Hiniahiyan  Region.  —  Padre  Ippolito  Desideri. 
—  Climate. — The  Himalaya  not  a  Water-shed. — Geological  Theories.  —  Baltistan, 
Ladakh,  Astor  and  (Jilgit.  —  Character  of  the  Dras  Valley.  —  Karbu.  —  The  Mongols  of 
the  High  Valley.  — The  Poverty  of  the  People.  — The  Karal  Bridge.  — The  Sand-Btorm.- 
Confluence  of  the  River  Suru.  —  Olthingthang.  ^ — Dispensary  Work. — Anthropology  of 
the  Baltis.  —  Current  Tlieories  and  the  Observations  of  K.  von  Ujfalvy.  —  Religion  and 
Lansruaffi'.  — The  Brokpas.  — The  Isolation  of  the  Tribes. 

Four  days'  maicli  through  valleys 
and  over  mountain.s  still  buried  in 
winter  snow  had  brought  us  to  the 
bare  and  arid  basin  of  the  river 
Dras.  The  wintry  interlude  had 
almost  made  us  forget  the  fascinating 
spectacle  of  the  vale  of  Kashmir 
in  its  spring  blossom,  and  thus  the 
edge  was  taken  oft"  from  the  sur- 
prising contrast  between  two  regions 
so  wholly  diverse  from  each  other. 
They  feel  this  contrast  more  keenly 
who  cross  the  Zoji  La  in  summer, 
gazing  to  the  very  top  of  the  pass 
upon  the  green  forests  and  rich  pastures  of  the  Sind  valley,  and  then 
loolving  down  on  the  other  side  upon  the  stony  desert  of  Baltistan.  There 
is  probably  no  other  range  of  mountains  upon  the  face  of  the  earth  whose 
two  slopes  reveal  features  so  absolutely  opposed  to  one  another.  The 
traveller  has  crossed  the  great  northern  barrier  of  India,  and  has 
suddenly  entered  a  country  which  is  physically  identical  with  Tibet  and 
Central  Asia. 

Padre  Ippolito  Desideri,  an  Italian  missionary  who  crossed  the  Zoji 
La  on  May  30th,  1715,  describes  the  trans-Himalayan  region  in  the 
following  words  :  "  From  the  foot  of  this  pass  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  nine  months'  march  that  it  takes  to  get  from  here  to  China, 


The  Dras  \'allfv.  73 

there  is  no  fertility,  no  greenness  or  pleasantness  in  the  land,  nothing 
but  the  absolute  and  horrible  desolation  of  the  Caucasian  mountains, 
which  stretch  all  that  way  and  which  the  geographers  call  dorsum  orbis."^ 
Padre  Desideri  went  no  farther  than  Leh,  which  is  only  fourteen  or 
fifteen  marches  from  Zoji  La  ;  but  the  "  horrible  desolation  "  of  the 
mountains  stretches  over  the  whole  of  Baltistan  and  the  neighbouring 
countries  of  Gilgit  and  Astor  to  the  west  and  Ladakh  to  the  south-east 
— in  other  words,  the  whole  of  the  region  lying  to  the  north  of  the  western 
Himalaya. 

It  is  an  enormous  strip,  over  300  miles  broad,  all  of  it  above 
7,000  feet  high,  and  it  seems  distorted  by  a  fearfid  convulsion  of  the  earth's 
surface.  It  is  covered  by  a  complicated  system  of  mountain  ranges, 
with  peaks  from  26,000  to  28,000  feet  high,  and  includes  immense 
plateaus  from  46  to  60  miles  wide  and  from  15,000  to  17,000  feet  above 
sea  level,  as  well  as  innumerable  valleys  and  countless  glaciers,  some 
of  which  are  over  40  miles  long. 

The  whole  of  this  vast  region  is  quite  bare  and  without  vegetation. 
Few  and  far  between  are  the  groups  of  trees  or  bushes,  the  little  grassy 
hollows  hidden  away  in  the  high  valleys,  or  the  small  oases  laboriously 
created  by  the  diligence  of  the  natives.  They  are  all  too  diminutive 
to  appear  as  more  than  dots  in  the  iUimitable  desert  of  rock,  gravel 
and  sand.  No  doubt  the  lack  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  is  the 
cause  of  this  extraordinary  barrenness.  The  wall  of  the  Himalayan 
range  stops  and  condenses  on  its  southern  side  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
moisture  which  the  monsoon  brings  from  the  south-west,  thus  giving 
rise  to  the  startling  contrast  between  the  atmospheric  precipitation  of 
the  two  slopes.  Hence  the  singular  phenomenon  of  the  far  lower  snow- 
level  and  the  far  lower  point  reached  by  the  glaciers  on  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  chain  than  on  the  northern  slopes,  notwithstanding  the 
higher  temperature  and  the  greater  rapidity  of  melting  brought  about 
by  the  southern  exposure.-     And   not   only  is   there  such  a  contrast 

'  See  C.  PuDfl,  II  Tibet,  secondo  la  relazione  del  viaggio  del  Padre  Ippolilo  Desideri  {1115- 
1721).     Mem.  of  the  Ital.  Geog.  Soc.  1904. 

'  R.  Strachey  (On  the  Physical  Geography  of  the  Provinces  of  Kutnaon  and  Gahrtcal,  etc.. 
Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  21,  1851,  p.  57)  has  observed  a  ditferenco  of  more  tlian  3,000  feet  in  the 
lowest  level  of  the  snows,  and  one  of  more  than  4,500  feet  in  the  lowest  limit  reached  by  the 
glaciers,  between  the  southern  and  northern  slopes  of  the  Himalaya  of  Kumaun  and  Gahrwal. 
F.  Drew  (op.  cit.)  found  corresponding  differences  in  the  Western  Himalaya  ;  S.  J.  Bi'KR.akd 
(op.  cit.)  says  that  the  snow  line  in  the  Punjab  Himalaya  is  some  2,000  feet  lower  on  the  southern 
than  on  the  northern  side. 


74  CliapttT    \'l. 

between  the  southern  and  noithern  exposure  on  the  main  I'idge,  })ut  the 
further  you  go  behind  the  Himahiya  the  higher  is  the  Hmit  of  the 
glaciers.  1  The  dryness  of  the  climate  is  such  that  in  the  whole  of  the 
trans-Himalayan  region  there  are  barely  six  inches  of  rainfall  in  the  year. 
Were  it  a  plain  it  would  be  like  the  Sahara.  Fortunately,  however,  the 
highest  ridges  condense  into  snow  whatever  moisture  escapes  being 
caught  upon  the  Himalaya,  so  that,  whenever  the  exposure  and  the 
slope  of  the  mountains  allow  it,  neves  and  glaciers  are  formed  which 
permit  the  scanty  population  to  support  life  in  spite  of  their  inhuman 
surroundings. 

The  climate  is  always  extreme.  The  winter  is  so  severe  that  torrents 
and  rivers  are  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  ice  and  form  excellent  roads, 
far  better  than  the  primitive  jiaths  which  wind  along  the  mountain 
sides.  In  summer  the  sun  blazes  with  intolerable  violence  through  the 
dry  atmosphere,  though  the  temperature  is  by  no  means  excessive. 
The  nights  are  very  cool. 

A  single  valley  of  vast  length  winds  in  deep  serpentine  curves  through 
the  ranges  and  forms  a  connecting  link  among  the  chaos^  of  valleys — 
the  high  valley  of  the  Indus,  which  runs  through  the  whole  region,  with 
a  main  trend  from  South-west  to  north-east,  at  a  height  of  from  7,000 
to  10,000  feet  gathering  every  torrent,  every  brook,  every  river  that 
flows  down  from  the  springs,  the  snows  and  the  glaciers  throughout  the 
whole  vast  extent  of  the  region. 

Thus  we  have  the  singular  fact  that  the  chain  of  the  Himalaya  is 
not  a  water-shed.  Kashmir  to  the  south-west.  Baltistan  and  its 
neighbouring  provinces  to  the  north-east,  all  belong  to  the  same  hydro- 
graphic  basin,  that  of  the  Indus.  This  lack  of  relation  between  the 
orographic  and  the  hydrographic  scheme  is  a  feature  common  to  the 
whole  Himalaya.  In  other  words,  the  Indus,  the  Bramaputra,  and.  in 
fact,  most  of  the  great  rivers  of  India,  have  their  sources  north  of  the 
great  chains,  through  which  they  cut  their  way  in  gorges  which  are  the 
grandest  in  the  world.  Between  one  range  and  another  they  flow  through 
long  stretches  of  the  intervening  longitudinal  vallevs,  descending 
gradually  from  one  to  the  next  until  they  reach  the  plain  of  India.  The 
Indus,  between  its  sources  in  Tibet  and  its  outlet  into  the  Indian  plain, 

'  Sir  J.  D.  Hooker,  Hinmhynl  Juiirnoh.  etc.  London  li)05.  Drew  and  Uunard  also 
mention  tlie  fact,  which  is  plainly  manifested  by  the  total  absence  of  glaciers  throughout  the  vast 
regions  of  Tibet,  which  reach  or  exceed  a  height  of  17,000  or  18,000  fei't  above  sea  level. 


Tlic  Dras  Valley.  75 

flows  some  1,100  miles  between  range  and  range  of  the  western 
Himalaya,  with  a  total  drop  of  16,000  feet  and  an  average  drop  of  less 
than  three  per  1,000. 

Geologists  have  laboured  to  find  an  explanation  of  this  seemingly 
paradoxical  phenomenon — namely,  that  the  course  of  the  rivers  is  not 
determined  by  the  mountain  ranges.  They  usually  base  their  theories 
upon  the  geological  fact  that  the  chain  of  the  Himalaya  is  a  comparatively 
recent  formation.  Tlie  whole  formidable  upheaval  which  has  created 
the  most  gigantic  bastion  on  the  face  of  the  eai'th  appears  to  have 
commenced  only  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tertiary  period,  and  many 
are  of  opinion  that  it  is  still  going  on.  This  upheaval  has  been  neither 
so  swift  nor  so  violent  as  to  alter  the  main  Unes  of  surface  drainage 
which  were  already  in  existence.  The  Himalayan  rivers  of  our  time 
may  therefore  represent  the  ancient  hydrogi-aphic  system,  which  flowed 
from  north  to  south,  having  preserved  their  course  by  a  process  of  gradual 
erosion  of  their  beds  progressing  contemporaneously  with  the  upheaval 
of  the  ranges  between  their  sources  and  the  Indian  plain.  In  this  way 
the  valleys  would  have  grown  gradually  deeper  while  their  side-walls 
were  rearing  themselves  up  to  the  immense  height  which  they  have 
attained.  This  is  the  theory  of  H.  B.  MedUcott  and  of  Richthofeu.^ 
The  upheaval  would  have  taken  place  in  a  series  of  long  parallel  folds, 
giving  rise  to  the  longitudinal  valleys. 

R.  D.  Oldham  has  further  suggested  another  special  form  of  erosion 
to  explain  the  formation  of  certain  cross  valleys.  He  is  of  opinion 
that  a  torrent  by  progressive  erosion  of  its  bed  can  eat  away  the  bottom 
of  the  gorge  in  which  it  runs  to  such  a  depth  as  gradually  to  cut  actually 
through  the  chain.-  This  process  would  go  on  with  greater  activity  in 
the  gorges  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  mountains  than  in  those  on 
the  northern  slopes,  on  account  of  the  greater  volume  of  water,  owing 
to  the  higher  degree  of  atmospheric  precipitation.  Once  the  chain  was 
quite  cut  through  the  waters  of  the  valley  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
chain,  at  right  angles  to  the  newly-formed  channel,  would  flow  down 

•  Medlicott  and  Blasford,  Gfohgy  of  India.  2iicl  ed.  Edited  by  R.  D.  Oldlinin.  London 
1893. 

*  See  R.  1).  Oldham's  standaixl  work.  A  Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India.  London  1901  ; 
and,  upon  the  specific  problem  of  "  back-cuttinc,"  The  Rifer  Vallei/s  of  the  Himalayas.  Jour. 
Manchester  Geog.  Soc.  9,  1893.  p.  112  ;  and  The  Valleys  of  the  HinuiUiyas.  Geog.  Jour.  30,  1907, 
p.  .512  ;  also  the  work  of  K.  Oestreich  previously  cittd,  which  dots  not  agree  with  Oldham's 
theory. 


76  Cluiptev  VI. 

into  the  southern  valley,  which  is  always  the  lower  of  the  two.  In 
this  way  the  southern  water  courses  would  have  gradually  captured 
the  northern  water's. 

This  brief  account  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  whole  system  of 
Himalayan  orohydrography  is  not  a  single  conception  subdivided  into 
two  branches  depending  one  upon  the  other,  as  is  the  case  in  the  other 
mountainous  regions  known  to  us.  On  the  contrary,  it  consists  of  two 
absolutely  different  systems.  Hence  any  description  of  this  region  or 
classification  of  its  features,  or  even  cartography,  may,  as  has  been 
clearly  demonstrated  by  Burrard,  be  done  according  to  either  of  two 
alternative  plans,  starting  either  from  the  hydrographic  or  the  orographic 
system.  This  duaUsm  has  caused  considerable  uncertainty  and  con- 
fusion, because  most  of  those  who  have  described  this  region  h;n'e  based 
their  description  indiscriminately  now  upon  the  orographic  and  again 
upon  the  hydrographic  data,  without  any  definite  plan.  Burrard,  on 
the  contrary,  begins  with  a  description  of  the  orographic  morphology, 
giving  the  scheme  of  the  ranges  without  taking  into  account  the  water- 
courses ;  and  then  he  begins  over  again  to  describe  the  same  region 
according  to  the  hydrographic  basins  and  the  river  courses. 

In  this  state  of  uncertainty  of  the  whole  question  it  is  possible  that 
in  the  future  geology  may  give  the  key  to  a  rational  classification  of 
the  mountains.  The  observations  made  by  the  Italian  expedition  and 
by  the  Longstaff  expedition  in  the  same  summer  certainly  showed  that 
the  geological  structure  of  the  high  ranges  is  far  less  uniform  and  simple 
than  has  been  beheved  up  till  now. 

The  region  to  the  north  of  the  western  Himalaya  comprises  districts 
which  are  quite  distinct  from  one  another,  not  merely  owing  to  pohtical 
frontiers,  but  because  of  differences  in  the  anthropological  types, 
reUgions  and  customs  of  their  inhabitants.  South-westward, 
wedged  between  Baltistan,  Tibet  and  Kashmir,  hes  Ladakh,  which 
is  in  no  wise  distinguishable  from  Tibet,  of  which  it  was  a  proAdnce 
prior  to  the  Sikh  conquest.  Its  inhabitants,  like  the  rest  of  the 
Tibetans,  are  Mongols,  professing  Llamaism  and  practising  polyandry. 
Bordering  upon  Ladakh  to  the  north-east  lies  Baltistan  or  Little  Tibet, 
situated,  roughly  speaking,  between  34°  to  36°  N.  Lat.  and  75°  to  77° 
E.  Long.,  and  inhabited  by  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiite  sect. 

Baltistan  and  Ladakh  are  both  administered  by  a  high  functionary 
of  Kashmir,   the  Wazir-i-Wazarat,  who  is  resident  at  Leh,  and  upon 


TIk-  Dras  Vallev. 


77 


whom  depend  two  Tehsildars,  one  at  Kargil  and  the  other  at  Skardii. 
The  British  Government  is  represented  in  two  districts  by  an  EngUsh 
official,  whose  headquarters  are  at  Leh,  and  who  is  subordinate  to  the 
Resident  of  Kashmir.  To  the  west  of  Baltistan  are  the  districts  of 
Astor  and  Gilgit,  which  march  with  Afghanistan  and  are  inhabited^by 
Dards. 


THE    DRAS   VALLEY. 


Our  route  now  descends  the  Dras  valley  to  its  meeting  with  the 
Indus,  which  latter  it  follows  across  Baltistan  as  far  as  Skardu.  The 
Dras  and  the  Indus  together  form  a  semi-circle  giving  a  diameter  of 
about  30  miles  around  a  gigantic  centre  of  upheaval,  the  table-land 
of  Deosai,  14,000  feet  in  altitude.  The  distance  from  the  village 
of  Dras  to  the  Indus  is  about  48  miles,  with  a  drop  of  less  than 
1,500  feet.  For  the  first  33  miles  the  route  to  Skardu  is  identical  with 
the  route  to  Leh,  capital  of  Ladakh. 

We  left  Dras  early  in  the  morning  of  April  30th.  The  great  basin 
which  feeds  the  river  is  closed  at  the  lower  end  by  a  sort  of  natural 
dam,  through  which  the  water  has  cut  an  outlet.  This  obstruction 
crossed,  we  enter  the  Dras  vaUey  proper,  which  is  at  fii-st  wide  and  open, 


78  C'liaptcr  VI. 

with  a  round  and  level  bottom,  but  lower  down  becomes  narrower  and 
gradually  puts  on  the  \'-shape.  In  fact,  the  valleys  of  the  western 
Himalaya  are  characteristically  much  narrower  and  more  shut  in  in 
their  lower  than  their  upper  course.  This  feature  was  very  clearly 
marked  in  the  Gumber  valley,  which  we  had  just  come  down.  Perhaps 
the  round  bottom  of  the  upper  part  is  a  sign  that  the  high  valley  was 
occupied  by  glaciers  in  the  past,  while  the  pointed  bottom  of  the  lower 
part  suggests  the  outlet  cut  by  erosion  of  the  river.  This  hypothesis 
ought,  however,  to  be  supported  by  geological  data,  which  would  require 
a  search  for  specific  glacier  marks. 

Throughout  its  whole  length  the  valley  is  encumbered  by  huge  fan- 
shaped  alluvial  deposits  or  cones  of  detritus,  which  mark  the  mouth  of 
every  tributary  gorge,  and  in  the  intervals  between  these  by  immense 
masses  of  detritus,  which  fill  the  valley  bottom  and  come  down  in  steep 
falls  from  a  considerable  height  on  the  mountain  side.  There  is  detritus 
of  every  size,  from  fine  sand  to  blocks  of  several  cubic  yards,  composed 
of  granite  of  varying  texture  and  of  colour  ranging  from  light  grey  to 
nearly  l)lack.  Although  still  at  low  water  the  stream  runs  fiercely, 
and  its  muddy  ashen-grey  wat(Ms  rage  in  foaming  eddies  through  the 
generally  deep  and  narrow  bed  which  it  has  eaten  out  through  a  layer 
of  detritus  often  many  yards  deep.  All  these  phenomena  we  shall  see 
repeated  on  a  far  greater  scale  in  the  Indus  valley. 

The  whole  country  is  barren,  without  a  ])lade  of  grass.  Only  among 
the  stones  along  the  river  grow  a  few  very  thorny  brambles  not  yet 
beginning  to  bud.  and  a  few  isolated  juniper  bushes — Juniperus  excelsa 
— the  only  woody  growth  of  all  these  desolate  shores  except  where  there 
is  artificial  cultivation.  It  assumes  such  a  twisted,  stunted  and 
contorted  aspect  as  scarcely  to  deserve  the  name  of  tree,  even  when 
it  has  a  thick  tiuiik  of  many  years'  standing  and  numerous  branches. 

The  valley  runs  eastward  at  first  for  7  or  8  miles,  and  then  turns 
north-eastward.  Some  14  miles  from  Dras  the  path  leaves  the  left 
side  of  the  valley  and  crosses  the  river  over  a  bridge  built  in  two  sections, 
resting  on  a  big  boulder  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  and  not  in.spiring 
great  confidence  by  its  appearance.  We  crossed  it  leading  our  ponies 
over  the  beams,  which  shook  and  groaned  under  the  weight. 

The  long  day's  march  ended  at  Karbu  bungalow,  21  miles  from 
Dras,  in  a  narrow  gorge  of  the  valley.  Beyond  the  brawhng  torrent, 
on  the  rocks  of  the  steep  left  side  of  the  valley,  were  a  troop  of  ibexes, 


Tlic  Dras  Valley  below   Kartil 


IiniiH    wof.od    ('jUeV  aBiG    jil 


Tho   Dras  Vallev 


79 


which  the  Shikari  Abdullah  followed  with  hungry  eyes,  pointing  them 
out  to  us  for  several  hours.  All  this  upper  part  of  the  Dras  valley,  as 
far  as  the  place  where  the  road  to  Leh  branches  off,  is  inhabited  by  a 
mixed  population.  Among  the  coolies  engaged  at  Dra.s  and  the  people 
we  met  on  the  road  and  in  the  villages  and  fields,  the  marked  Mongol 
types  were  numerous  and  perhaps  in  the  majority,  with  their  slanting 
eyes,  projecting  cheek  bones  and  hairless  faces  or  thin,  brLstly  beards. 


CANTII.KVKH    BRIDCK   OVF.R   THE    DRAS. 


They  had  not  the  long  pigtails  of  the  Ladakhi,  but  they  had  preserved 
many  of  his  special  forms  of  dress — the  long  coats  open  at  the  sides, 
the  caps  with  their  large  brim  cut  away  on  the  foi-ehead  and  turned 
up  at  the  temples  ;  the  socks  of  thick  cloth  or  white  felt,  into  which 
are  gathered  the  ends  of  the  wide  trousers  ;  and  even  here  and  there 
a  l)luo  quilted  coat.  No  doubt  the  cold  of  the  high  valley  has  influenced 
these  descendants  of  Tibetans  to  preserve  the  garments  which  are 
suited  to  their  freezing  plateaus,  whereas  the  mixture  with  the  Baltis 
and  Kashmiris  has  made  them  forego  other  ethnological  traits  of  purely 
ornamental  value,  such  as  the  pigtail. 


80  Chapter  Vl. 

The  haste  of  our  journey,  our  incomplete  preparation  and  our 
ignorance  of  the  language  prevented  us  from  gathering  more  detailed 
particulars.  It  is  certain,  as  we  shall  see  presently,  that  the  real  Baltis 
show  very  different  anthropological  features.  I  have  no  doubt  that 
this  predominance  of  Ladakhi  traits  in  the  upper  Dras  valley,  forming 
as  it  does  the  first  impression  of  the  traveller  who  comes  from  Kashmir 
to  Baltistan,  has  had  its  weight  in  the  growth  of  the  widely-spread 
opinion  that  the  Baltis  are  httle,  if  at  all,  different  from  the  Ladakhis. 


K,\RBU  BUNGALOW. 


As  for  the  villages  through  which  we  pass  after  leaving  Dras,  they 
are  not  only  not  to  be  compared  with  the  prosperous  and  solidly-built 
habitations  of  the  Ladakhis,  but  not  even  to  the  inferior  villages  of 
lower  Baltistan.  These  Dras  valley  dwellings  were  tumble-down 
hovels  some  six  feet  high,  with  walls  built  of  stones  ill  put  together,  and 
a  flat  roof  of  beaten  earth,  upon  which  four  flat  stones  are  placed  with 
their  edges  leaning  one  upon  the  next  around  the  hole  which  serves  as 
a  chimney.  There  are  no  windows,  and  only  a  low  hole  for  a  door. 
Inside  there  is  barely  room  to  stand  upright.  The  wretched  appearance 
of  the  inhabitants  matches  the  squalor  of  their  dwelUng-houses,  and  is 
increased  by  their  dirtiness,  which  is  absolutely  unimaginable.  The 
domestic  animals  are  small  in  size  hke  the  people,  and  share  in  the 
general  misery.  The  jionies  have  long  shaggy  hair,  and  are  as  thin  as 
skeletons,  with  hydropic  paunches  and  knotty  legs.  The  full-grown 
sheep  and  goats  seem  only  half  developed.      The   cattle   are  partly  of 


'I"^ 


The   Dias  Valley.  81 

the  humped  Indian  kind,  and  partly  hybrids  between  these  and  the  yak, 
known  as  zho.  The  cows  are  small,  lean  and  ill-shaped  ;  the  calves  are 
pitiful.  The  hard  Hindu  law  enforced  upon  these  Mohammedans  forbids 
under  severe  penalties  the  slaughter  of  cattle.  Therefore  the  calves 
are  weaned  before  their  time  so  as  to  continue  to  profit  by  the  milk 
of  the  cow.  and  they  may  be  seen  trying  to  browse  upon  the  lean  vegeta- 
tion, pitifully  staggering  upon  httle  legs  as  yet  scarcely  strong  enough 
to  carry  them. 

In  the  fields  around  the  villages  ragged  peasants  follow  primitive 
ploughs  drawn  by  oxen.  Behind  comes  the  woman,  breaking  up  the 
clods  with  a  small  mattock.  She  is  covered  with  a  pile  of  luispeakable 
rags,  her  face  is  hidden  under  a  veritable  layer  of  dirt,  her  head  is 
covered  with  a  cloth,  and  she  wears  great  earrings  in  her  ears.  None 
of  tlicm  wears  the  characteristic  headgear  set  with  turquoises  and  silver 
ornaments  which  adorns  the  head  and  falls  down  upon  the  back  of  the 
women  of  Ladakh.  They  seem  more  careless  of  the  presence  of  the 
stranger  than  the  women  of  the  Indus. 

Not  far  from  Karbu  the  Dras  receives  ivoxn  the  left  an  important 
confluent,  the  Shigar,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  other  river  of  the 
same  name  which  falls  into  the  Indus  near  Skardu. '  This  tributary 
of  the  Dras  comes  down  from  the  Deosai  plain.  On  the  return  jourBey 
we  crossed  its  sources. 

Little  by  little  the  last  traces  of  snow,  which  higher  up  occasionallv 
lay  along  the  road  on  the  fringe  of  the  avalanches,  disappear  altogether 
and  the  scene  becomes  even  more  barren  and  desolate,  for  the  snow 
had  seemed  like  a  justification  of  the  absence  of  vegetation.  The  right 
bank  of  the  valley,  which  the  path  follows,  is  absolutely  bare  and 
parched.  On  the  other  side  we  saw  several  little  cultivated  oases.  As 
we  descend  further  the  ploughing  gives  way  to  the  sowing,  and  the 
fruit  trees  are  putting  forth  their  first  blossom.  Here  and  there  shape- 
less holes  hollowed  out  in  the  alluvial  deposit  mark  the  passage  of  gold- 
seekers,  whose  labours  must  have  been  unrewarded,  for  the  works  are 
utterly    abandoned.     Near   the    path    we    observe    primitive    shelters — 

'  The  geographical  noiiu'nclaturi'  of  Baltistan  is  still  somewhat  uncertain  and  irregular. 
Not  only  arc  there  many  homonyms,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Shigar.  l.-ut  in  many  places  the  names 
of  rivers  change  witli  each  important  confluent ,  or  even  at  every  bend  of  the  .«ame  valley.  Further- 
more, countries  and  places  change  their  names  without  any  obvious  reason,  which  has  occasionally 
given  rise  to  unfair  charges  of  inaccuracy  against  the  map  of  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of 
India. 

(9221)  F 


82 


CliJiDtor  VI. 


plain  rough  roofs,  covering  over  some  natural  hollow  of  the  earth  and 
forming  a  sort  of  den,  neither  high  enough  to  stand  nor  wide  enough 
to  lie  in.  They  suffice,  however,  for  the  Baltis,  who  are  in  the  habit 
of  sleeping  in  a  squatting  posture,  with  the  head  resting  on  the 
knees. 

About  eight  miles  from  Karbu,  at  the  outlet  of  a  narrow  gorge  of  the 
valley,  we  see  before  us  to  our  great  surprise  the  incredible  apparition 
of  a  real  suspension  bridge,  built  according  to  rule,  with  high  pillars 
of  masonry  supporting  the  sustaining  cables,  over  200  feet  long  and 
10  feet  wide.  This  piece  of  modern  engineering  stands  in  singular 
contrast  to  the  stony  desert  and  the  primitive  roadway. 


PLOUGHING   UJ    BALTISTAN. 


The  bridge  marks  an  important  bifurcation  of  the  road.  To  go  to 
Skardu  you  cross  the  bridge.  The  other  path  continues  along  the  right 
hand  of  the  Dras  to  its  meeting  with  the  Suru  not  far  off,  and  then 
proceeds  along  the  latter  river  to  Kargil,  whence,  after  crossing  various 
ridges,  it  reaches  the  Indus  valley  at  a  higher  point,  and  follows  it  up 
to  Leh,  the  capital  of  Ladakli. 

Immediately  beyond  the  bridge,  on  a  sandy  alluvial  level  encircled 
in  a  wide  bend  of  the  river,  stands  the  bungalow  of  Karal,  very  primitive 
and  too  small  to  house  the  expedition.  We  therefore  set  up  our  tents 
around  it,  tjang  the  ropes  to  big  stones,  for  the  pickets  would  not  hold 


The  Dras  Vallev. 


83 


in  the  deep  sand.  The  great  tent  of  the  Tehsildar  of  Kargil,  Pandit 
Sri,  who  escorted  the  Duke  from  Dras  onward,  seemed  hke  a  palace 
in  comparison  with  ours.  It  consisted  of  a  big  square  central  chamber, 
over  which  was  stretched  a  fly,  a  sort  of  immense  second  roof,  which 
came  down  to  the  ground,  forming  two  other  little  rooms  on  each  side 
of  the  centre  one.     Inside  the  ground  was  covered  with  rugs,  and  there 


AN   OASIS   IN   THE    DBAS   VALLEY. 


were  tables,  chairs,  etc.,  a  simple  but  convenient  outfit.  Hardly  had 
we  set  up  our  camp  when  a  violent  wind  arose,  whirling  clouds  of  sand, 
which  filled  our  noses,  mouths  and  eyes,  and  lay  in  a  thick  layer  over 
everything.  The  tents  flapped  furiously  in  the  wind,  and  offered  no 
protection  against  the  fine  dust,  which  penetrated  our  clothes,  beds 
and  boxes.  This  was  the  first  of  a  whole  series  of  dry  storms  which 
raged   nearly   ever}'    afternoon.     They   generally    lasted    three    or    four 


hours  and  ceased  toward  evening. 

(9221) 


F  2 


84 


Chai)tc'r  y\. 


Almost  opposite  the  camp  the  Dras  was  joined  by  the  Sum,  a  large 
river  which  flows  from  the  south,  bringing  the  waters  produced  l)y  the 
melting  of  the  glaciers  of  the  Nun  Kun.  Oestreich  rightly  observes 
that  it  would  be  more  correct  to  regard  the  Dras  as  a  confluent  of  the 
Suru. 

A  ragged,  wretched,  sickly-looking  crowd  was  gathered  upon  the 
rocks,  and  gazing  at   us   quite   motionless.     Perhaps   they   came   from 


OUR   CAMP   UNDER    THE    APRICOTS    AT   OLTHIN-(lTHAN(;. 

some  village  nestled  high  up  among  the  neighbouring  rocks,  or  possibly 
from  Karkitchu,  the  big  village  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Dras.  We 
paid  and  dismissed  the  ponies  which  we  had  brought  from  Dras ;  and 
fifty-eight  others,  come  we  knew  not  whence,  were  immediately  loaded 
and  sent  on  before. 

All  through  the  night  we  heard  our  coolies  coughing  as  they  squatted 
round  the  camp,  ill-protected  by  their  wretched  woollens  from  the 
cold,  which  went  down  to  42°  F.  Next  morning  we  found  them  still 
squatting  in  a  circle  at  a  respectful  distance  from  the  tents,  in  the  same 
posture  in  which  we  had  left  them  the  evening  before.  Perhaps  they 
had  spent  the  whole  night  without  moving.  We  had  to  enlist  thirty- 
eight  extra  coolies,  as  only  twenty-one  ponies  were  available. 


At   Olthingthang 


i;(ij^ni(hl' I    »/ 


The  Dras  Vallev. 


85 


The  valley,  as  it  approaches  its  end,  grows  so  narrow  that  there 
is  no  room  for  the  path  at  the  bottom,  and  it  has  to  wind  up  and  down 
the  steep  spurs.  The  temperature  had  risen  considerably,  and  the  sun 
was  hot  even  early  in  the  morning,  so  that  our  third  stage  in  the  Dras 
valley,  though  only  14  miles  long,  Avas  fatiguing  enough.  The  path 
followed  the  left  and  steeper  bank  of  the  valley,  where  there  is  no  level 
ground  suitable  for  cultivation.  The  opposite  bank  was  dotted  with 
villages  and  gardens. 


(;ROrP   OF    BOYS    AT   OI.THIXtJTriAXC. 


A  short  distance  fioin  the  outlet  of  the  valley,  sloping  down  the  sides 
of  a  spur  800  to  1,000  feet  above  the  river,  hes  the  big  village  of 
Olthingthang.  We  passed  through  it  up  the  steep  stony  path  which 
winds  through  the  oasis.  The  houses  have  no  upper  story,  and  are 
built  in  the  usual  way  with  stones  and  mud.  They  stand  in  groups 
among  trees  and  fields,  and  distributed  one  behind  another  up  the 
slope,  in  such  a  way  that  the  flat  roof  of  the  house  below  forms  the 
terrace  on  the  ground  level  of  the  one  above.  These  roof  terraces  were 
crowded  with  swarms  of  children  and  their  elders,  who  watched  the 
passing  of  the  expedition  with  lively  comments. 

The  dak  bungalow  stood  at  the  top  of  the  village — dirty  and 
primitive,  and  only  fit  for  coolies.  But  immediately  above  it  was  a 
semi-circular  terrace,  shaded  by  the  biaiuhes  of  two  huge  apricot  trees 

(0221)  F  3 


8C 


Chapter   \'l. 


in  full  bloom,  beneath  which  ran  a  cool  brook.     We  set  up  our  tents 

in  the  niidst  of  this  scene  of  blossoming  spring. 

In    the    course    of     the     afternoon     we     proceeded     to     hold     a 

dispensary  and  distribute    medical   advice.     The    whole   population  of 

Olthingthang     crowded     thither, 

more  to  enjoy  the  sight  than  to 

be  healed.      The  crowd  gathered 

in  a  sort  of  courtyard,  perhaps  a 

house  that  had  lost  its  roof,  below 

the  camp  ;    and  we  liad  the  sick 

brought    up    one    by  one    to   the 

open     space     before     the     tents 

after    a    first    summary    inquiry 

into  their  complaints.    Mr.  Baines 

translated     my     questions     into 

^^  Trtlu    for    the    Shikari,    and    he 

fir"       WU  ^H  / i  .^s.JHH     >^'^P6^^^<1  them  in  the  Balti  dialect 
^  *^  ^^    filfW^^^^     ^Q    |.|^g    patient.       The     answers 

came  back  by  the  same  devious 
course,  so  that  I  was  obliged  to 
put  more  trust  in  the  objective 
than  the  subjective  symptoms  of 
disease.  I  was  finally  consulted 
bv  the  Rajah  of  Karmang — Aman 
Ali  Shah — wlio  was  afflicted  by  a  chronic  dermatitis  of  the  hands,  and 
who  had  come  hither  to  pay  his  respects  to  the  Duke. 

This  medical  review  gave  us  our  first  opportunity  of  studying  at 
close  quarters  a  great  number  of  natives.  The  population  was  entirely 
Balti,  and  appeared  to  us  all  to  be  indubitably  and  markedly  Aryan  in 
type.  The  Mongol  types  were  the  exception,  and  could  be  distinguished 
at  once  by  the  marked  contrast  of  their  featui-es  with  those  of  the 
majority.  This  first  impression  was  confirmed  throughout  the  journey, 
in  the  course  of  which  we  came  into  close  contact  with  thousands  of 
Baltis  in  the  process  of  engaging  and  paying  off  the  cooHes,  in  the 
medical  consultations,  or  among  the  crowds  at  the  polo  games  and  the 
receptions  given  us  by  the  Rajahs.  I  am  unable  to  agree  with  the 
unanimoas  opinion  to  the  opposite  effect  on  the  part  of  all  the  English 
travellers  who  have  written  about  Baltistan. 


NATIVES   OF   OLTHINOTHAXC:. 


The  Dras  \'i 


ilk'v 


87 


Roero  di  Cortanze  is  the  only  one  among  the  older  writers  who 
describes  the  Baltis  as  "  of  the  Caucasian  or  white  race,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Ladakhis,  who  are  Mongols  and  copper-coloured." 
Vigne,  one  of  the  earliest  visitors  to  the  region,  puts  them  down  as  a 
mixed  race,  combining  Mongol  characteristics  with  the  nobler  featiu-es 
of  the  Indian  or  Persian.  Cunningham  states  explicitly  that  they  are 
a  branch  of  the  Mongol  race,  possessing  its  characteristics  to  a  marked 


OROrP   OF   SATnES    FROM    SHICAR. 


degree,  although  shghtly  modified  by  climatic  conditions  and  by  mixture 
with  the  Indo-Caucasians  of  India.  Drew  likewise  assimilates  them 
with  the  Ladakhis,  shghtly  modified  by  climatic  influences ;  while 
Biddulph  modifies  the  assertion  of  their  Tartar  type  by  admitting  a 
strong  element  of  Aryan  blood,  owing  to  mixture  with  the  Dards.  In 
the  last  edition  of  the  Gazetteer  of  India  the  Baltis  are  described  as  of 
common  stock  with  the  Ladakhis,  and  as  Mongol  in  feature.  Even 
Dr.  A.  Neve,  who  Hves  in  Kashmir  and  has  been  many  times  in  Baltistan, 
confirms  the  Tibetan  origin  of  the  inhabitants.  ^ 

•  O.  Roero  di  Cort.inze,  (;.  T.  Vigne,  Sir  A.  Cuxxingham,  F.  Drew,  opp.  citt. ;  Major  J. 
BlDDULrH,  Tribes  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh.  Calcutta  1880;  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India,  Vol.  \"I. 
Kashmir.     Calcutta  1908  ;   A.  Xeve,  Picturesque  Kashmir.     London  1900. 

(9221)  F  4 


88 


Cliaptor   \'I. 


All  these  opinions  are  based  solely  upon  ocular  impression.  Not 
one  of  these  authors  has  rollected  anthropological  data  to  prove  the 
asserted  kinship  of  the  Baltis  with  the  Ladakhis.  If  the  reader  will 
compare  Cuiniingham's  description  with  the  comparative  study  of  the 

Dards,  Baltis  and  Ladakhis  made 
by  T^jfalvy,  the  Hungarian  anthro- 
pologist, at  a  more  recent  date  and 
based  upon  scientific  methods  of 
anthropomorphic  investigation,  he 
will  be  able  to  draw  his  own  con- 
clusions as  to  the  uncertainty  of  a 
mere  description  of  the  features  as 
a  basis  for  racial  classification. 
Cunningham  asserts  that,  exce])t  for 
a  few  individual  cases  in  the  upper 
classes,  the  Balti  type  is  character- 
isticallv  Tartaro-Mongol.  low  in 
stature,  face  wide,  flat  and  squ;ue, 
with  projecting  cheekbones,  narrow 
forehead,  small,  obUqiie,  slit-like 
eyes,  broad  flat  nose  with  wide 
nostrils,  large,  thick,  projecting  ears 
with  long  lobes,  large  mouth,  and 
black,  thick,  usually  curly  haii-.  I'jfalvy,  on  the  other  hand,  describes 
thom  as  clearly  Aryan  in  type,  of  medium  stature,  low  forehead,  thick 
and  only  slightly  curved  eyebrows,  eyes  set  straight  and  close  together, 
cheekbones  not  projecting,  nose  long  and  straight,  ears  small  and  flat, 
mouth  of  middle  size  with  thick  lips,  chin  oval,  hair  black,  curly  and 
abundant,  beard  full,  etc.^ 

The  important  point,  however,  is  that  Ujfalvy  corroborates  his 
statements  with  anthropometric  measurements.  He  collected  his 
observations  in  Skardu,  Shigar,  Parkutta,  Kharmang,  Olthingthang, 
Karkitchu  and  Dras,  measuring  also  Baltis  from  other  places.  He 
found  that  the  Baltis  had  an  average  cephaUc  index  of  72  "35,  which 
is  much  nearer  that  of  the  Dards  (73  62)  than  that  of  the  Ladakhis  (77). 
I  will  not  enter  into  any  long  repetition  of  figures,  as  I  think  the  photo- 

'  K.  K.  VON  Ujfalvy.  ,4h«  ilem   wesilirhf-n  Hinmhiyn.      I^ipsic  1884  ;    and  Les  Aryens  au 
nord  ei  au  sud  de  VHindon-Knitrh.     Paris  1890. 


A   CHUPRASSI    FROM    ASKOLEY    IN    THE 

BKAI.IIOII    VALLEY. 


The  Dras  Vallev. 


H'J 


graphs  of  natives  reproduced  in  this  voKime  and  taken  by  Sella  from 
the  purely  artistic  point  of  view,  without  any  specific  selection  of  types, 
are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  great  majority  of  the  Baltis  correspond 
more  to  Ujfalvy's  description  than  to  Cunningham's.^ 

As  to  their  origin,  Ujfalvy  considers  them  to  be  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Saci,  who  came  from  the  north  of  the  Tien  Shan  and  mingled 
later  with  the  aborigines  of  Northern  India,  the  Dards  and  tlie  Tibetans. 
Biddulph  quotes  a  tradition  which  is  still  current  in  Skaidu  and  Rondu, 


GROUP    FROM    1"\KKI  TTA    IX    TlIK    INDUS   VALI.EY. 


to  the  effect  that  Baltistan  was  first  inhabited  by  Dards  of  Aryan  race, 
and  later  invaded  by  Mongols,  who  l)ecame  fused  with  tlie  original 
population. 

The  Balti  dialect  is  Tibetan,  and  this  is  their  only  common  grouiul 
with  the  Ladakhis.  The  difference  in  customs  is  fundamental.  1  have 
already  mentioned  that  the  Ladakhis,  like  all  Tibetans,  are  Llamaists 
and  practice  polyandry,  while  the  Baltis  are  Mohannnedans  and 
polygamous.  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  radical  difference  in 
racial  customs,  ethics,  family  life  and  political  institutions  springing 
from  points  of  departure  so  diametrically  opposed. 

'  See  also  the  groups  of  Baltis  shown  mi  ]i]i.  lOfi,  107^  IIS.  164,  192,  etc. 


90 


Cliapter  \  I. 


A  very  interesting  ])oint  is  the  circumstance  that  the  Baltis  belong 
to  the  sect  of  Shiite  Mohammedans,  whereas  all  the  neighbouring  peoples 
of  Chinese  Turkestan,  Kashmir  and  Dardistan  belong  to  the  Sunnite 
sect,  like  the  rest  of  Islam  in  India.  The  Baltis  thus  form  a  little  island 
of  Shiites  surrounded  on  every  side  by  Sunnites,  Hindus  and  Buddhists. 
Little  is  known  as  to  the  origin  of  their  religious  traditions.  Cunningham 
supposes  that  Islamism  was  introduced  among  them  in  the  first  half 


BAI.TI    FAMILY    FROM    SHICAR. 


of  the  thirteenth  century.  Drew  is  of  opinion  that  the  four  missionary 
brothers  of  Kurasan,  to  whom  legend  attributes  the  conversion  of 
Baltistan,  must  have  been  Shiites.  The  Brahminic  bas-reliefs  carved 
upon  great  slabs  of  stone  near  Dras,  as  well  as  the  rehgious  inscriptions 
and  Buddhist  symbols  inscribed  here  and  there  upon  the  rocks  along 
the  path,  certainly  prove  that  the  Baltis  have  passed  through  the  same 
rehgious  phases  as  the  rest  of  northern  India. 

In  addition  to  the  Baltis  proper,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population, 
there  are  in  Baltistan  small  settlements  of  a  people  known  as  Brokpas, 
of  Dard  descent  and  Buddhist  rehgion,  whose  idiom,  customs  and  caste 
are  peculiar  to  then^selves.  They  are  less  civihzed  than  the  Baltis, 
who  hold  them  in  sHght  regard  ;    and  they  lead  a  primitive  hfe,  mainly 


The  Dras  VallcN" 


•ji 


as  shepherds  of  the  high  valleys,  where  the  greater  degree  of  moisture 
allows  of  a  small  extent  of  pasture.  We  did  not  come  into  contact 
with  any  of  them. 

The  indulgence  of  the  reader  will  forgive  this  long  digression,  whose 
object  has  been  to  make  clear  how  little  we  know,  and  how  uncertain 
is  even  that  little,  as  to  the  origin,  history,  tradition,  legend  and  even 
ethnographical  classification  of  a  population  so  interesting,  and  showing 


NATIVES  OF  ASKOLEY  IN  THE  BRALDOH  VALLEV. 


such  clear  signs  of  strong  external  influence  in  the  past,  despite  a  geo- 
graphical position  so  secluded,  in  a  country  so  wild  and  inhospitable 
that  whole  groups  of  villages  are  cut  off  from  all  communion  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  during  ten  months  of  the  year.  The  Balti  race  deserve 
a  high  degree  of  esteem  and  goodwill.  They  are  scrupidously  honest, 
mild  of  manners,  gentle  and  good-tempered,  naturally  amenable  to 
discipline,  capable  of  the  hardest  labour,  incredibly  temperate,  happy 
with  very  Uttle  and  invariably  good-humoured. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE    INDUS    VALLEY. 


Character.  —  (li'ological  Chaos.  —  Stone-falls,  Landslips.  Dei)Osits  and  Erosions.  —  Alluvial 
Cones.  —  Signs  of  Climatic  Change.  —  The  Tenipoi'ary  Damming  of  the  Valleys.  —  Great 
Historical  Floods.  —  Oases.  —  Irrigation  Canal.s.  —  The  Skardii  Route.  —  The  Formation 
ot  the  Caravan. — The  Order  of  thr  Marches.  —  Saddle-ponies.  —  Coolies.  —  The  Escort.  — 
Climate.  —  The  Cam)).  —  Kashmiri  Servants.  — Camp  Work.       ConU  and  Kunsniiiah. 


'I' HE  striking  peculiarities  of  the 
Dras  valley  had  made  a  stioiig 
im])i'ession  upon  us.  But  not  until 
we  reached  the  Indus  valley  did  we 
realize  to  the  full  the  nature  of  this 
land  of  desolation  and  sterility.  The 
gigantic  scale  of  all  the  features  does  not  grow  upon  one  until  after  days 
and  days  of  sojourn  in  this  strange  scenery,  because  the  perfect  propor- 
tions of  the  valleys  and  their  enclosing  hilLs  keep  the  traveller  under  an 
illusion  as  to  their  actual  dimensions. 


'V\)v    Indus    \';illey.  03 

111  the  Alps  one  has  the  impression  that  everything  has  been  moulded 
ill  a  remote  past,  and  reached  once  and  for  all  a  settled  state.  The 
ancient  gashes  and  scars  are  cloaked  with  a  mantle  of  verdure  which 
hides  the  great  wounds  and  mutilations  left  by  prehistoric  landshdes. 
The  rocks  have  been  polished  by  the  hand  of  time  ;  they  are  overgrown 
with  moss  and  hchens  ;  no  ledge,  no  crevice,  is  without  its  plant  life. 
A  rock-fall  here,  a  landslip  there,  seems  to  matter  as  little  as  grains  of 
sand  that  slide  down  the  dunes. 

But  in  Baltistan  the  colossal  forces  of  nature  may  be  seen  in  active 
operation.  Geological  evolution  is  proceeding  with  such  o})vious  plain- 
ness that  the  traveller  feels  as  though  he  were  beholding  a  countrv  in 
a  state  of  formation  and  witnessing  the  modelling  of  the  earth's  crust. 
CHffs  fall  and  mountains  are  disintegrated.  The  slow  work  of  the 
waters  hollows  out  gorges  and  hews  their  walls  into  new  shapes,  almost 
under  one's  eyes,  with  such  activity  and  on  such  a  scale  that  nothing 
elsewhere  can  be  compared  with  it. 

The  impressiveness  of  these  geological  forces  is  so  great  that  the 
barrenness  of  the  earth  seems  on  the  whole  quite  justified,  as  if  the 
vegetation  were  only  waiting  for  the  earth  to  acquire  a  settled  shape 
before  clothing  it.  Animal  hfe  appears  to  be  Hmited  to  a  few  insects 
and  lizards,  which  are  still  in  their  winter  sleep.  The  few  species  of 
timid  mammals  remain  in  the  high  nullahs  or  valleys.  Now  and  then 
a  brilliant  jay  or  a  few  crows  fly  about  the  oases,  and  sometimes  we  see 
a  great  vulture  or  hawk  soaring  high  above  the  valley. 

The  whole  land  is  one  vast  labyrinth  of  high,  barren,  desolate 
mountain  chains,  of  chffs  spht  and  shattered  in  every  direction,  usually 
precipitous  ;  overhanging  valleys  full  of  rocks  and  stones,  pebbles  and 
sand  ;  detritus  of  all  shapes  and  sizes  hurled  down  in  avalanches  and 
mingled  with  vast  accumulations  of  alluvial  deposit.  The  disintegration 
is  so  continual  and  on  so  vast  a  scale  that  the  general  aspect  of  the 
valleys  must  perforce  change  at  many  points  every  few  years.  Traces 
of  avalanches  are  everywhere  visible,  signs  of  ancient  or  recent  cata- 
clysms, boulders  polished  to  a  shining  red-brown  surface  by  time  and 
the  action  of  water,  lying  alongside  of  huge  blocks,  whose  clear-cut 
fractures  seem  of  yesterday,  at  the  feet  of  rock  walls  torn  with  fresh 
gashes. 

Sir  Martin  Conway  attiibutes  this  remarkable  decay  of  the  rocks 
solely  to  climatic  causes — drought  and  swift  and  extreme  changes  of 


94 


Chapter  VII. 


temperature.  But  surely  a  great  part  must  be  played  by  the  absolute 
lack  of  any  layer  of  vegetation  which  would  protect  the  live  rock  from 
the  direct  action  of  excessive  heat  or  frost,  and  by  absorbing  the  waters 
to  hinder  them  from  bursting  in  sudden  torrents  down  into  the  valleys. 

The  bed  of  the  valleys  alters  its  shape  incessantly.     T Unremittingly 
the  river  gnaws,  wears  down  and  digs  out  its  bed,  and  shifts,  rolls  and 


THE   IXDUS   JUST   BELOW   THE    MOUTH   OF   THE    DKAS. 


di'ags  down  millions  of  tons  of  mattei',  which  it  deposits  wherever  the 
current  slackens  above  a  narrow  gorge  or  pile  of  boulders,  only  to  move 
them  again  once  the  obstacle  is  removed  or  cut  thiough. 

The  lavers  of  detritus  and  sediment  sometimes  attain  a  thickness 
of  1,000  feet  or  more.  The  sedimentary  deposits  are  of  every  species 
and  variety  :  banks  of  the  finest  and  purest  clay,  pebbles,  agglomerates 
of  every  variety  and  period.  They  usually  take  the  form  of  terraces 
cut  steep  down  to  the  river.  They  are  not,  however,  invariably  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vallev,  the  remains  of  ancient  sedimentary  deposits 
sometimes  cUnging  to  the  walls  up  to  a  great  height.  Thomson  found 
cla)'  deposits  between  1,000  and  2,000  feet  above  the  stream,  as  high 
up  as  the  brow  of  the  chffs  along  the  valley ;    and  Schlagintweit  found 


TIr'  Indus  Valk'v. 


95 


deposits  of  pebbles  and  sand  from  3,000  to  4,000  foet  above  the  actual 
level  of  the  water.  ^  Such  deposits,  as  well  as  the  places  where  the 
rock  walls  have  been  gnawed  away,  hollowed  out  and  cut  by  the  water 
into  spherical  cavities,  afford  clear  proof  that  at  one  time  the  Indus 


ALLUVIAL   TERRACE    AND    STRETCH   OF    PATH    BETWEEX    KARMAXli    AND   TOLTI. 


I'au  at  a  far  higher  level  than  at  present ;  or  rather,  they  point  to  an 
uplifting  of  the  whole  region,  while  the  river  went  on  cutting  its  valley 
by  erosion  and  maintaining  more  or  less  the  same  level  throughout. 

The  various  levels  of  the  alluvial  deposits  along  the  cliffs  show  that 
the  upheaval  was  not  continuous,  uninterrupted  and  regular.     Oestreich 

'  Tn.  Thomson,  Journey  to  the  Karakoram  Pux-t.     Jour.  lioy.  (leog.  Sac.  19,  1849,  p.  25  ; 
ScHLAGiNTWEiT,  Joiir.  Asiut.  Sor.  of  Bengal  26,  1857  (cited  by  Burraixl). 


96 


Chapter   \'ll. 


holds  tliat  the  whole  valley  between  Dras  and  Skardu  was  first  cut 
through,  then  filled  up  with  detritus  to  about  600  feet  above  the  present 
level,  and  then  once  more  dug  out.^  According  to  him  the  present 
valley  would  be  a  recent  formation,  and  the  river  would  be  still  actively 
cutting  its  way.  However  this  may  be,  the  immense  geological  forces 
have  made  of  the  upper  Indus  one  of  the  longest  and  wildest  valleys 
on  the  face  of  the  earth. 


THE    INDUS    VAIJ.EY    ABOVE    KARMANO. 


At  first  sight  the  huge  sedimentary  deposits,  often  divided  into 
strata,  seem  to  indicate  that  the  valley  was  once  filled  with  a  series  of 
lake  basins.  Sir  A.  Cunningham  and  Sir  Martin  Conway  are  of  opinion 
that  such  gigantic  sedimentary  formations  can  be  explained  in  no  other 
way.  Thomson  had,  however,  already  noted  that  this  simple  theory 
would  explain  neither  the  extraordinary  extension  of  the  sediments — 
which  are  to  be  found  with  unvarying  characteristics  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Indus  valley — nor  their  immense  thickness  at  various  points, 


(Godwin  Austen  also  mentions  this  succession  of  phenomena.     See  Qeog.  Jour.  26,  1905, 


p.  245. 


The  Indus  Vallev. 


97 


nor  their  frequent  appearance  at  the  mouth  of  tributary  valleys, 
where  they  often  take  the  form  of  deltas.  Drew  beUeves  the  origin 
of  the  deposits  to  be  fluvial,  and  very  ingeniously  explains  the  stratifica- 
tion of  the  clay  as  caused  by  the  periodic  muddiiiess  of  the  waters  and 
the  increase  in  their  volume  during  the  melting  of  the  snows,  which 
together  give  rise  to  deposits  of  fresh  sand  and  mud  upon  the  banks. 


VIEW    IN   THE    INDUS   VALLEY — A    SMALL  OASIS. 


Another  objection  to  the  lake  hypothesis  in  the  Indus  valley  Ues  in 
the  fact  that  lakes  are  extremely  rare  throughout  the  Himalayan  system. 
Not  only  is  there  a  complete  absence  of  those  lakes  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  which  are  so  typical  a  feature  of  our  own  Alps,  but  even  in 
the  liigh  valleys  no  considerable  lakes  are  to  be  found.  The  frequent 
stoppage  of  the  river  waters  through  temporary  damming  up  of  their 
course  has  always  been,  in  historic  times,  of  short  duration,  a  few  months 
at  most,  and  could  not  have  brought  about  any  permanent  modification 
of  the  aspect  of  the  valley. 

The  largest  and  thickest  sedimentary  terraces  usually  lie  at  the 
mouth  of  tributary  valleys  and  lateral  gorges,  and  spread  out  in  the 
shape  of  alluvial  fans.      They  range  between  a  few  hundred  yards  and 

(9221)  O 


98  Chaj)ter  \'1I. 

a  few  miles  across,  and  form  symmetrical  cones,  whose  apex  is  frec^uently 
a  great  height  above  the  valley  bottom,  while  the  base  towards  the  river 
is  cut  vertically.  They  are  usually  bisected  by  the  tributary  water- 
course. ^ 

The  formation  of  these  huge  deltas  is  certainly  hard  to  explain  by 
the  present  climatic  conditions  of  the  region.  The  torrents  which  flow 
down  the  valleys  and  lateral  gorges  are  usually  little  more  than  rivulets, 
and  in  many  cases  no  longer  flow  across  the  delta,  but  between  the  latter 
and  the  valley  wall,  on  their  way  to  the  main  stream.  Furthermore, 
the  surface  of  the  cones  is  usually  sprinkled  with  numerous  blocks  and 
rocks  which  have  fallen  from  tlie  mountain  sides,  often  at  a  remote 
period,  since  when  it  is  e\adent  that  no  new  material  has  been  deposited 
so  as  even  partially  to  cover  up  their  bases.  Lastly,  nearly  all  the 
deltas  of  any  size  are  covered  with  cultivation,  being,  in  fact,  the  only 
inhabited  parts  of  the  valley,  and  the  aspect  of  the  villages  and  the 
dimensions  of  the  trees  prove  that  from  time  immemorial  there  have  been 
no  floods. 

These  facts  seem  to  me  to  justify  the  hypothesis  that  the  present 
extreme  lack  of  moisture  was  preceded  by  a  period  during  which  the 
streams  which  flow  through  the  tributary  valleys  were,  at  least  during 
a  portion  of  the  year,  powerful  torrents  capable  of  carrying  down  great 
masses  of  rock,  earth,  etc.,  in  amount  sufficient  to  form  these  great 
alluvial  cones.  After  all,  it  is  not  improbable  that  this  belt  between  the 
Himalaya  and  Central  Asia  may  at  one  time  have  enjoyed  a  moister 
climate  than  it  does  now,  considering  that  a  similar  state  of  things 
obtained  in  Central  Asia  itself,  as  the  evidence  gathered  by  all  explorers 
there  goes  to  show. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  temporary  damming  up  of  the  vallevs. 
Their  depth  and  their  trough-shaped  bottom  between  the  steep  cUffs, 
from  which  landslides  and  stone  avalanches  fall  continually,  make 
them  especially  liable  to  this  accident.  But  the  strangest  form  of  dam 
is,  W'ithout  doubt,  that  produced  by  a  glacier  coming  down  out  of  a 
tributary  valley  and  projecting  until  it  forms  a  dyke  straight  across  the 
main   valley.      The    river,    hemmed   in   by    any    one    of   these    causes, 

1  Sir  M.  Conway  thinks  that  the  angle  of  the  slope  of  these  fans  proves  that  they  are  formed 
by  landslides  and  not  by  matter  brought  dowTi  by  the  streams.  His  obser^'ations  were  made  in 
a  portion  of  the  Bunji  valley  between  Astor  and  Gilgit,  but  I  do  not  think  the  theory  would 
apply  to  the  Indus  valley,  where  the  deltas  show  the  typical  characteristics  of  alluvial  cones. 


The   Iiuliis   \'alk'v. 


•M 


naturally  forms  a  temporary  reservoir  or  lake.  Sooner  or  later  the 
pressure  of  the  water  succeeds  in  undoing  the  dam  and  a  devastating 
flood  bursts  down  into  the  valley,  sweeping  before  it  every  trace  of 
villages  or  cultivated  oases,  and  bringing  niin  down  to  the  far-off  plains 
of  India. 

In  1841  a  landslide  in  the  deep 
gorge  of  the  Indus  to  the  west  of 
Nanga  Parbat  almost  entirely 
dammed  up  the  course  of  the  river, 
forming  a  lake  about  40  miles  long. 
Six  months  later  the  dam  gave  way, 
and  the  huge  reservoir  was  emptied 
in  a  single  day,  obliterating  every 
trace  of  hfe  for  800  miles  of  valley. 
At  Attock,  where  the  valley  opens 
into  the  Punjab  plain,  Gulab  Singh's 
Sikh  army  was  encamped.  The 
fearful  flood  swept  it  away,  destroy- 
ing 500  men.  1  These  catastrophes 
are  not  confined  to  the  Indus. 
History  records  several  similar 
disasters  proceeding  from  the  same 
causes  in  the  other  valleys  of  the 
western  Himalaya. - 

In  the  midst  of  this  geological 
chaos,  lost  in  the  vast  stony  desert. 
are  himible  human  dwelhngs  hidden 
away  in  the  recesses  between  the 
ridges,  sometimes  so  deeply  secluded 
among  the  tremendous  precipices  of 
the  gorge  that  the  sun  reaches  them  for  one  hour  only  in  the  twenty-four. 
With  ant-hke  industrv  the  inhabitants  have  succeeded  in  wresting  their 


THE    IXDUS    BELOW   T.VKKVTTA. 


'  This  disaster  was  for  a  long  time  attributed  to  the  damming  up  of  the  Shyok  valley,  a 
tributary  of  the  Indus  above  Skardu  (Sir  A.  Cunxln"CH.\m,  op.  cit.).  Years  subsequently  Drew- 
discovered  the  real  cause.  Beside  Drew,  D.  Fraser  has  described  this  fearful  inundation  (see 
The  Marches  of  Hurulustan.     London  1907)  ;   also  Burrard,  op.  cit. 

-  One  of  the  greatest  was  the  destruction  of  the  city  of  Bilaspur  in  1762,  through  the  sudden 
giving  way  of  a  dam  which  had  been  formed  in  the  river  Sutlej  by  a  landslide  and  had  held  up 
against  the  water  for  forty  days.  ,,.,;. 

(9221)  o  2 


100 


Chapter  VII. 


nurture  from  the  terrific  nature  round  them.  They  have  caught  every 
trickle  of  water,  every  rivulet  fed  by  high  neve  or  glacier,  and  have 
led  it  for  miles  through  carefully  constructed  conduits  to  a  point  where 
a  little  sloping  ledge,  or  more  often  the  surface  of  an  alluvial  delta, 
permitted  of  irrigation  and  culture.  All  along  the  march  down  the 
valley   you   can   follow   with    your   eye   the   tiny   far-off   water-course, 


m. 


THE    INDUS    VALLEY    BELOW    TOLTI. 


gfadually  and  evenly  descending  along  the  rocky  cliffs,  always  clearly 
outUned  by  the  thin  green  line  of  shrubs  and  herbs  which  follows  its 
precious  course,  and  sometimes  as  it  descends  by  veritable  avenues  of 
willows  or  poplars  which  line  its  margins  until  it  ends  at  the  oasis.  The 
line  of  the  little  conduit  never  deviates  as  it  crosses  the  steep  side  of 
old  landslides,  precipitous  chffs  or  transverse  gorges.  However  small 
the  scale  it  is  a  true  aqueduct,  constructed  with  consummate  skill 
and  needing  ceaseless  labour  for  its  upkeep,  frail  and  undefended  as  it  is 
among  the  mighty  powers  of  ruin  and  destruction. 


Tlie  Indus  Vallev. 


101 


The  oases  are  always  cultivated  in  terraces,  each  of  which  contains 
its  little  field  surrounded  with  groups  and  rows  of  trees,  among  which 
nestle  the  little  reddish-brown  cottages.  In  the  midst  of  the  appalling 
desert,  imder  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  the  blossoming  oasis  with 
its  green  shade  seems  like  a  miracle,  a  delight  to  the  eyes  of  which  it  is 
impossible  to  render  the  faintest  idea  in  words.     The  pink  and  white 


A    t'ULTIVATEU    ALIA'VIAL    DELTA    BELuW    TAUKII'IA. 

blossoms  of  the  apricots  gleam  in  the  faint  hght  of  dawn  as  if  they  were 
covered  with  hoar-frost.  Over  them  rise  tender  green  willows  and 
slender  poplars,  just  in  their  first  bud  and  showing  all  tlie  delicate 
design  of  their  branches.  Between  the  trees  are  set  hke  emeralds  small 
fields  where  the  green  corn  is  now  a  few  inches  high.  The  soil  is  too 
valuable  to  use  for  anything  except  corn.  Only  at  the  edge  of  the 
meadows  and  on  the  brinks  of  the  irrigation  canals  grows  a  little  grass 
mingled  with  tufts  of  pale  iris  leaves,  whose  buds  do  not  yet  show.  The 
skirts  of  the  oasis  end  in  a  perfectly  clean  line,  beyond  which  lies  the 
inimitable  waste  of  stone. 

(9221)  o  3 


102 


Chapter  VII. 


A  povei'ty-strickoii  people  live  upon  the  verge  of  starvation  in  these 
gardens.  Their  neighbours  in  Ladakh  have  received  from  their  religion 
customs  and  social  laws  which  prevent  the  increase  of  the  population, 
hence  their  agricultural  resources  suffice  to  give  them  relative  plenty. 
The  Baltis,  on  the  other  hand,  have  increased  through  polygamy  and 
concubinage  in  number  beyond  all  pioportion  to  the  resources  of  the 


BETWEEN    KARMASG    AND    TOLTI. 


country,  for  cultivation  is  strictly  limited  to  the  land  which  can  be 
brought  under  irrigation,  and  this  area  is  not  capable  of  extension. 
Thus  thev  are  obliged  to  emigrate  in  large  numbers  to  Kashmir,  Simla 
and  the  Punjab  in  search  of  work  and  the  means  of  subsistence. 

From  the  meeting  of  the  Dras  and  the  Indus  to  Skardu  is  about 
86  miles  down  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Indus,  with  a  drop  of  about 
1,500  feet.  We  covered  the  distance  in  six  stages.  The  path  was 
everywhere  in  good  condition,  evidently  lately  repaired,  so  that  it  was 
possible  to  ride  the  whole  way.  The  Baltis  are  the  best  road-builders 
in  the  western  Himalaya,  and  have  done  a  good  share  of  the  important 


The  Tiuliis  Vallev. 


103 


military  roads  which  lead  from  Kashmir  to  the  frontier  posts  of  Chitral 
and  Afghanistan. 

The  path  follows  the  winding  course  of  the  valley,  now  crossing 
stretches  of  alluvial  deposit  or  flats  of  fine  sand  in  a  wide  part  of  the 
valley  bed,  again  creeping  across  the  steep  inclines  formed  by  the  fall 
of  detritus  from  the  cliffs.     At  points  where  the  valley  narrows  to  a 


THE    I'ATII   ACKOSS   THE   CLIFFS,    BELOW   GOL. 


gorge  between  granite  precipices  it  cHmbs  to  a  great  height  to  cross  the 
ridges  or  parri,  as  they  call  them  here.  At  other  times,  to  save  the 
wearying  ups  and  downs,  a  path  is  made  straight  across  the  face  of  the 
precipice.  Beams  are  fixed  in  the  ledges  of  the  rocks  and  cross-beams 
laid  over  and  covered  with  stones  and  beaten  earth.  The  bridge  thus 
formed  is  supported  from  beneath  by  slanting  props  between  the  rock 
and  the  edge  of  the  path.  The  whole  forms  a  sort  of  ledge  hung  across 
the  precipitous  rock  wall  above  the  swift  waves  of  the  Indus,  which 
hurries  far  below  through  its  narrow  bed. 

(9221)  o  4 


104  Chapter  \'II. 

In  some  places  the  sides  of  the  valley  are  so  steep  that  their  crests 
are  not  visible  from  our  path  in  the  bottom  of  the  gorge.  Huge  pre- 
cipitous ridges  run  down  on  each  side  and  overlap  each  other,  apparently 
blocking  the  way  before  us.  We  have  but  rare  and  fleeting  glimpses 
of  the  higher  chains  whose  rocky  spurs  enclose  vis  on  every  side.  Only 
as  we  toil  across  occasional  openings  of  the  valley,  sinking  at  each  step 
into  the  fine  sand,  do  we  get  a  sight  of  the  far-off  snow-peaks. 

In  all  this  distance  we  do  not  find  a  single  large  confluent  on  the 
left  side  of  the  valley.  AVe  miss  the  fresh  springs,  the  little  waterfalls 
and  torrents  of  our  Alps.  The  torpid  stream  of  the  Indus,  laden  with 
sand  and  nmd,  rolls  its  grey  waters  lazily  through  open  spaces  and 
around  curves,  where  it  spreads  into  a  wide  bed  with  beaches  of  snow- 
white  sand.  Only  in  the  narrow  gorges  does  it  flow  rapidly  with  foaming 
waves ;  and  it  never  forms  real  waterfalls  except  at  one  point  a  little 
below  Karmang,  where  it  leaps  down  a  step  some  15  or  20  feet  high. 
This  waterfall,  which  was  discovered  by  Conway,  is  worthy  of  remark, 
because  it  is  such  a  rare  phenomenon  in  either  the  small  or  the  great 
rivers  of  the  Himalaya.  The  Indus  is  a  great  river,  even  now  when  the 
melting  of  the  snows  has  scarcely  begun  ;  but  it  seems  small  in  proportion 
to  the  vast  size  of  the  basin  from  which  it  is  fed — 103,823  square  miles, 
about  the  size  of  the  whole  of  Italy,  including  her  islands.  The  fact 
helps  us  to  realize  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  climate. 

Our  life  in  the  Indus  valley  was  systematically  arranged.  We  were 
called  between  five  and  half-past  in  the  morning,  and  immediately 
began  our  struggle  with  the  coolies  to  prevent  their  snatching  our  beds 
and  baggage  before  they  had  been  rolled  up,  closed  and  got  ready.  In 
the  great  variety  of  packages  formed  by  our  complicated  luggage  there 
were  some  which  the  coolies  preferred  to  others,  for  though  the  weight 
of  all  was  approximately  the  same,  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  some 
pieces  made  them  handier  for  the  back  of  the  coolie  or  the  pony.  The 
men  would  very  nearly  snatch  the  ecjuipment  from  our  hands,  so  great 
was  their  impatience,  and  we  had  to  defend  our  possessions  energetically. 
Next,  while  the  guides  with  the  help  of  our  Kashmiri  bearers  struck 
and  rolled  up  the  tents,  we  would  get  a  good  English  breakfast,  prepared 
by  Mr.  Baines'  kansamah. 

Soon  after  six  everything  was  ready  for  the  start.  Negrotto  was 
paymaster  of  the  caravan,  and  he  would  stand  on  the  road  with  Mr. 
Baines  and  Alexis  Brocherel  and  deal  out  numbered  counters  to  the 


ff^ 


riie  Indus  Valley.  105 

coolies  and  ponymen  as  they  passed  before  him.  It  was  necessary  to 
engage  fresh  coohes  and  ponies  at  nearly  every  stage,  as  they  could  not 
leave  the  field  labour  of  their  villages  for  more  than  two  or  three  days. 
As  soon  as  the  last  porter  was  off  we  would  set  out  ourselves.  Sella 
usually  left  the  camp  before  breakfast  with  his  assistant  Botta  and 
the  coolies  to  carry  the  photographic  and  cinematographic  apparatus. 
In  this  way  he  got  more  time  to  photograph  the  scenery,  and  was  able 
to  stop  on  the  way  with  the  cinematograph  and  catch  the  expedition 
on  the  march  at  picturesque  points  of  the  road. 

Part  of  the  way  we  walked  and  part  of  the  way  we  rode  the  forlorn- 
looking  ponies  of  the  district,  all  dirty  and  covered  with  long  shaggy 
hair,  but  plucky  and  willing  like  their  masters.  The  primitive  saddles 
were  so  uncomfortable  that  we  usually  preferred  to  walk,  riding  only 
across  long  reaches  of  sand,  or  here  and  there  for  a  rest  on  the  march. 
Between  these  impossible  saddles  and  the  pony's  back  goes  the  thick 
folded  namdah  (a  species  of  soft  felt  manufactured  in  Kashgar  and 
used  throughout  both  sides  of  the  Karakoram  region),  which  had  a 
tendency  to  sUp  out  and  drag  saddle  and  rider  with  it.  Anyone  in- 
tending to  take  a  long  journey  through  Baltistan  should  provide  himself 
with  a  good  leather  saddle  in  Srinagar. 

The  first  half-hour  of  our  march  was  always  tiresome,  until  we  had 
passed  and  left  behind  the  whole  lot  of  coolies.  The  smell  of  these 
natives  is  \mbearable,  even  in  the  open  air,  and  if  you  get  to  leeward 
of  them  will  simply  take  your  breath  away,  even  at  a  distance  of  a 
dozen  or  so  yards.  They  do  not,  however,  look  sickly  like  the  people 
of  the  upper  Dras  valley,  but  seem  robust,  healthy  and  well  fed.  They 
are  born  porters.  Their  step  is  nimble  and  short,  even  at  the  worst 
parts  of  the  path,  and  their  halts  are  frequent  and  brief.  They  shave 
a  large  strip  in  the  middle  of  the  head,  from  the  forehead  to  beyond  the 
crown.  The  rest  of  the  hair  is  allowed  to  grow  long,  and  falls  in  curls 
around  the  circular  Balti  cap.  Those  of  a  Semitic  type  remind  one 
of  Polish  rabbis ;  those  whose  features  are  pure  Aryan  look  Uke  Florentine 
pages  of  the  Renaissance.  Their  clothes  are  of  puttoo,  originally 
white,  with  wide  trousers  cut  short  above  the  knee,  and  a  coat  of  the 
same  length,  and  each  is  provided  with  a  blanket  shawl  of  the  same 
wool,  which  he  carries  twisted  round  his  waist  or  spread  on  his  back 
to  relieve  the  pressure  of  the  load.  The  latter  is  fixed  to  the  shoulders 
bv  strong  twisted  cords  of  black  and  white  goat's  hair.     All  our  parcels 


IOC 


Chapter  VII. 


were  so  arranged  that  they  could  be  tied  on  to  the  shoulders  direct, 
but  when  they  carry  their  own  goods  the  Baltis  use  conical  baskets 
of  woven  withes,  very  like  those  in  use  among  our  peasants  of  the 
province  of  Biella.     As  on  liis  other  expeditions,  the  Duke  had  brought 

from  Italy  a  number  of  the  load- 
carriers  designed  by  the  Sellas  for 
mountain  portage,  to  carry  the  more 
fragile  part  of  the  baggage,  such 
as  the  meteorological  instruments, 
photographic  materials,  etc.  The 
Baltis,  however,  were  quite  as  firmly 
set  against  innovations  as  our  own 
peasants,  and  insisted  on  tying  both 
load  and  load-carrier  on  to  their 
backs  with  cord  in  the  usual 
manner,  instead  of  passing  their 
arms  through  the  wide  straps  which 
are  so  much  easier  for  the  shoulders 
and  collar-bones  of  the  porter. 
Before  the  end  of  the  campaign, 
however,  Sella  did  manage  to  persuade  a  number  of  the  coolies  who 
remained  longer  in  our  service  of  the  advantage  of  the  load-carriers, 
and  quite  converted  them  to  the  system. 

One  by  one  we  would  pass  ahead  of  the  cooUes  on  the  narrow  path, 
where  they  stood  on  one  side  to  let  us  go  by.  At  the  least  encourage- 
ment gathered  from  our  looks  their  faces  would  expand  in  a  broad  and 
jovial  grin.  Bowed  down  with  their  heavy  loads,  streaming  with  sweat 
under  the  burning  sun,  they  are  always  ready  for  a  laugh,  and  never  look 
hostile  or  ill-tempered.  They  were  always  scattered  in  Uttle  groups  over 
very  long  stretches  of  the  road,  but  the  coolies  who  carried  the  treasure 
kept  together  under  the  escort  of  a  chuprassi. 

They  are  a  mild  and  timid  people,  quite  incapable  of  any  sort  of 
violence,  noisy  and  talkative  but  not  at  all  quarreLsome,  even  when 
they  are  squabbling  over  the  coveted  pieces  of  luggage.  You  never 
see  them  maltreat  or  beat  their  ponies.  They  encourage  them  with  the 
voice,  they  shove  them  or  haul  them  in  the  worst  bits  of  the  road,  but 
they  never  beat  them,  even  hghtly.  When  they  have  any  request  to 
make  they  join  their  hands  in  a  suppUant  attitude  or  even  kneel,  yet 


OROUP   OF    BALTIS. 


Tlic  Indus  Valley 


107 


they  have  none  of  the  crawling  seivility  of  the  Kashmiri,   and  their 
timidity  does  not  seem  Hke  cowardice. 

Our  guides  marched  in  a  group,  sometimes  at  the  head  of  the 
caravan,  sometimes  behind.  To  their  care  were  entrusted  the  precious 
mercury  barometers,  which  were  too  fragile  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of 
such  primitive  people  as  the  coolies. 


COOIJES    AT   KARMAXC. 


In  less  than  an  hour  we  would  leave  all  the  porters  behind  us  and 
find  ourselves  alone  in  the  desolate  valley.  The  foreguard  of  the 
expedition  was  rather  numerous.  The  Duke  was  invariably  escorted 
by  the  Shikari  Abdullah,  the  Tehsildar  of  the  district,  and  usually 
by  the  local  Rajah,  who  would  bring  with  him  one  or  two  Jemadars 
and  Lambardars,  a  few  chuprassis,  and  usually  his  minister  or  Wazir. 
The  high  officials  wear  turbans  of  white  muslin,  the  Lambardars 
turbans  of  pashmitta,  a  goat's  hair  tissue  which  varies  in  quality  and 
is   sometimes    marvellously    soft.     We    were  also  accompanied  by  the 


IDS  Cliaj)tt'r  VII. 

tiffin-coolie,  who  carried  the  hiiuheon  basket  and  who  was  selected  for 
liis  running  qualities,  so  that  he  could  follow  our  ponies  even  when  they 
trotted. 

The  sun  was  very  hot  and  the  radiation  so  intense  that  we  were  forced 
to  wear  our  pith  helmets,  although  the  temperature  was  not  above 
60°  to  68°  F.  The  air  was  very  dry,  nearly  always  breezy,  and  with 
a  slight  haze  rather  of  dust  than  of  moisture.*  Nearly  every  afternoon 
towards  three  o'clock  a  strong  wind  arose,  blowing  usually  from  the  west 
or  south-west,  and  raising  such  clouds  of  fine  sand  that  the  atmosphere 
would  grow  dark  hke  fog  up  to  a  very  considerable  height. 

About  ten  o'clock  we  would  stop  for  luncheon  in  some  garden  under 
the  shade  of  blossoming  apricots,  or  else  in  one  of  the  tiny  groves  of 
poplar  and  willow  enclosed  in  a  square  of  wall,  which  you  see  now  and 
then  on  the  way,  and  which  are  probably  resting-places  for  the  caravans 
or  to  shelter  the  flocks  and  herds  during  the  hot  hours.  I  must  here 
mention  the  existence  of  a  few  great  sohtary  trees  which  you  meet  in 
the  very  midst  of  the  desert  and  which  appear  to  be  centuries  old,  usually 
dead  except  for  a  branch  or  two,  with  the  trunk  half  buried  in  the  sand, 
but  far  bigger  than  any  of  the  trees  to  be  seen  in  the  cultivated  oases. 
Are  they,  perhaps,  a  solitary  relic  of  some  ancient  settlement,  driven 
hence  by  the  drying  up  of  the  water  supply  or  buried  by  a  flood  or 
crushed  by  a  landslide  ? 

We  usually  came  to  the  end  of  a  stage  before  two  o'clock,  and  set  up 
our  camp.  AVe  had  six  tents  in  all,  of  the  usual  hght  tropical  type, 
made  of  Willesden  green  canvas.  These  were  for  the  four  of  us  and 
for  our  eight  European  guides  and  porters.  Mr.  Baines  had  another 
tent.  The  Tehsiklar  used  to  make  his  own  arrangements  apart. 
Another  group  was  formed  by  the  kitchen  and  the  little  cotton  tents 
of  the  bearers. 

Throughout  India  domestic  service  is  divided  among  a  large  number 
of  servants  whose  functions  are  strictly  specified  and  limited  by  caste 
exigencies.  We  had  four  bearers — two  for  our  tents,  one  for  our  guides 
and  one  for  the  kitchen.     They  helped  the  coohes  to  set  up  and  strike 

'  See  in  the  scientific  appendix  the  tables  of  meteorological  observations  put  together  by 
Professor  Omodei  from  the  data  collected  by  the  Duke.  The  relative  humidity  of  the  air,  which 
in  the  Sind  valley  had  been  -44,  -88  and  -89,  came  down  to  -"O,  -71,  -63  and  -64  in  the  Dras 
valley,  and  -07,  -0.5,  -0,  -04,  -22  and  -16  in  the  Indus  valley,  with  a  tension  of  aqueous  vapour 
almost  invariably  below  the  unit. 


The-   Tiiclus  Yalk'V. 


109 


camp  ;  they  waited  on  us  at  meals  and  brought  us  water  to  wash. 
During  the  march  they  were  seldom  in  sight  or  caUing  distance,  though 
they  carried  the  water  flasks.  But  the  moment  we  reached  the  stage 
and  sat  down  they  would  rush  to  our  feet  and  proceed  to  massage  our 
legs  energetically,  a  most  excellent  practice,  which  any  cooUe  can  apply 
if  there  is  no  bearer  at  hand.     It  is  wise  to  prevent  your  private  servants 


PAYING   THE   COOLIES. 


from  interfering  with  your  relations  with  the  natives,  for  whenever 
the  Kashmiri  can  he  takes  advantage  of  the  ignorance  and  timidity  of 
the  Balti. 

As  soon  as  camp  was  set  up  every  one  would  go  about  his  own  work. 
The  Duke  would  take  the  daily  meteorological  data  and  make  com- 
parative readings  of  the  instruments,  which  were  to  be  used  later  to 
prove  that  the  latter  had  not  shown  variations  in  the  course  of  the 
journey.  He  also  gave  daily  attention  to  the  general  ordering  of  the 
•expedition,  checking  the  baggage,  organizing  the  parties  to  be  sent  on 
ahead,  and  supervising  the  hundred  odd  businesses   of  a  caravan  on 


110  Chaptor   \'II. 

the  marcli.  Vittorio  Sella,  when  he  had  not  .stopi)etl  behhicl  attiaeted 
by  some  special  beauty  of  landscape,  would  wander  round  the  outskirts 
of  the  camp  seeking  subjects  for  photography.  Negrotto  presided 
over  the  payment  of  the  coolies  if  it  was  one  of  the  days  when  the  old 
ones  had  to  be  paid  off  and  new  engaged. 

Shortly  after  our  arrival  sick  people  would  begin  to  troop  in  from 
the  villages.  The  most  common  diseases  were  forms  of  chronic 
dermatitis,  mange  and  tinea.  It  is  possibly  from  the  prevalence  of  this 
last  that  the  custom  has  grown  up  of  cauterizing  babies'  lieads  on  the 
top  and  above  the  ears,  which  Ujfalvy  observed  and  attributed  to  a 
belief  in  the  healing  action  of  fire.  Conjunctivitis  is  very  common,  as 
well  as  chronic  bronchial  affections,  all  forms  of  disease  due  to  dirt  and 
))auperism.  1  The  sick  people  were  frequently  brought  to  me  by  the 
Rajah  himself  or  his  Wazir,  with  a  certain  degree  of  affectionate  concern. 
They  ask  for  medical  relief  with  anxious  hope,  and  take  the  little  tabloids 
given  them  with  superstitious  reverence  and  the  ingenuous  trust  of  a 
primitive  people  in  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the  European.  It  is, 
however,  almost  impossible  to  l)e  of  much  assistance  to  them  in  so  short 
a  sojourn. 

Tea  would  gather  us  together  again,  and  we  would  discuss  witli  the 
Duke  the  future  organization  of  the  expedition  when  we  should  have 
left  the  last  village,  and  would  depend  on  ourselves,  our  coolies  and 
our  equipment  for  our  only  resources. 

Meantime  fowls,  eggs,  sheep  and  milk  have  been  brought  from  the 
village.  The  cook  of  the  party  is  Ernesto  Bareux,  who  is  full  of  good- 
will, attentive  and  painstaking.  But  no  European  can  compete  with 
the  Indian  or  Kashmiri  cooks  for  camp  cooking.  They  know  how  to 
use  their  primitive  utensils  and  to  make  the  most  of  the  monotonous 
provisions  to  be  found  in  the  villages,  cooking  them  in  an  attractive 
and  varied  way. 

Mr.  Baines'  Kashmiri  kansaniah  used  to  get  luncheon  for  us  all  and 
Bareux  the  dinner,  so  that  our  supplies  and  those  of  Mr.  Baines  were 
more  or  less  in  common.  This  gave  rise  to  an  acute  rivalry  between 
his  native  servants  and  ours.     Not  a  pinch  of  salt  lent  by  one  culinary 

'  In  Tarkutta  alone  I  have  noted  do\ni  one  case  of  old  dislocation  of  the  thigh,  one  of  double 
cataract,  pterigion,gastro-intestinal  helmcnthiasis  with  uncontrollable  vomiting,  Bright's  disease, 
two  cases  of  heart  disease,  one  of  infantile  paralysis — of  which  last  disease  I  observed  victims  in 
s?veral  villages. 


The  Tiidus  Valley.  ill 

establishinont  to  the  other  but  became  a  source  of  internal  l)ickeiing, 
and  heaven  knows  what  complications  might  have  arisen  between  the 
two  camps  had  not  our  guides  kept  order  through  their  prestige  as 
Europeans. 

By  nine  o'clock  we  were  all  in  bed.  The  temperature  used  to  go  down 
to  41°-45°  F.  The  Baltis  squatted  around  fires  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  camp,  and  apparently  remained  awake  the  whole  night.  They 
certainly  chatted  up  to  a  very  late  hour,  and  many  coughed  without 
interruption.  We  were  roused  of  a  morning  by  hearing  the  ponies 
being  got  ready  for  a  start,  and  greeting  each  addition  to  their  own 
company  by  noisy,  gay  and  shrill  neighing. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


FROM    OLTHINGTHANG    TO    SKARDU. 

The  Meeting  of  the  Dras  and  the  Indus.  —  Tarkutta.  —  The  Castle  of  Karmang.  —  The  First 
Jhula  Bridge.  —  Tolti.  —  Exchange  of  Tehsildars.  —  Parkutta.  —  Polo.  —  The  Shyok 
River.  —  Glacier  Marks  in  the  Indus  Valley.  —  Gol.  —  The  Skardu  Basin.  —  Lacustrian  and 
Glacial  Theories.  —  We  enter  the  Balti  Capital.  —  Official  Visits.  —  The  Forts  of  Skardu. 
—  The  Polo  Ground.  —  Arrangements  and  Contracts  for  the  Expedition. 


Ix  the  foregoing  chapter  I  have 
given  a  general  account  of  the 
IndiLs  valley,  which  I  will  now 
.supplement  with  a  few  notes  of  the 
journey,  so  as  to  call  attention  to 
the  more  interesting  details  of  each 
place  and  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the 
part  of  the  valley  through  which 
the  expedition  marched. 

We  entered  the  Indus  valley  on 
the  morning  of  May  3rd,  after  an 
hour's  march  from  Olthingthang. 
The  meeting  of  the  rivers  takes 
place  at  the  bottom  of  a  precipitous 
gorge,  where  the  path  has  to  cross  a  spur  of  granite  1 ,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  rivers.  Beyond  this  spur  it  descends  to  the  bank  of  the 
Indus,  which  it  follows  for  a  short  distance.  Then  it  is  again  forced 
to  climb  a  high  ridge  of  sedimentary  deposit,  from  the  top  of  which 
a  precipitous  way  leads  to  Tarkutta,  a  village  built  on  an  alluvial  terrace 
some  300  feet  above  the  stream.  We  passed  through  the  whole  village, 
which  is  shaded  with  walnut  and  apricot  trees,  and  set  up  our  camp  at 
the  foot  of  the  oasis,  near  a  wide  beach  of  very  fine  dove-coloured  sand 
on  the  bank  of  the  Indus.  It  was  so  hot  that  we  were  tempted  to  bathe, 
and  to  our  great  surprise  found  the  water  icy  cold. 


Confluence  of  the   Dras  with   the   Indus 


.  lil.iii    idl  ilJiv/  aiiiU  uri) 


From    ()ltliin<ithaii<i-  to   Skanlu. 


113 


On  the  following  day  we  proceeded  down  the  valley  northward, 
following  the  path  up  and  down  over  ridges  or  across  the  face  of  pre- 
cipices or  over  reaches  of  sand  scattered  with  granite  boulders.  At  one 
point  there  is  a  veritable  torrent  of  huge  snow-white  blocks,  whose  origin 
is  seen  on  glancing  at  the  great  white  scar  newly  left  exposed  at  the  top 
of  the  overhanging  precipice. 


KAKMANt;  :    TllK    CASTLE    AM)    THE    KAJAII  S    HOUSE. 

Around  a  bend  of  the  river  we  catch  sight  of  a  picturesque  castle 
standing  high  up  on  the  opposite  bank.  The  architecture  is  complex, 
and  although  a  part  of  the  roof  is  gone,  the  building  is  not  in  ruins.  This 
is  the  old  fort  of  Karmang,  now  no  longer  inhabited  by  the  Rajah,  w'ho 
lives  in  a  little  house  at  the  foot  of  the  same  rock,  near  the  river.  Around 
his  house  is  a  garden  containing  other  huts  inhabited  by  his  family  and 
dependents,  while  a  little  farther  on  is  the  village  of  Karmang,  or  Kartash, 
with  about  500  inhabitants. 

(9221)  H 


114 


Chapter  \'11I. 


On  our  side  of  the  river,  nearly  opposite  the  viUage,  stands  on  a 
sandy  level  the  little  dak  bungalow,  exactly  like  that  of  Karal  in  the 
Dras  valley.  Upon  the  table  in  its  single  room  were  arranged  plates 
containing  lilac  blossoms  and  chupattis,  the  small  round  cakes  which 
are  the  bread  of  the  region.  This  was  an  attention  of  the  Rajah,  who 
had  come  as  far  as  Olthingthang  to  meet  us.  Later  he  came  over  to 
pay  his  official  visit,  accompanied  by  a  ragged  Wazir  and  bringing  his 
two  little  boys,  whose  features  were  so  fine  as  to  be  almost  effeminate. 


THE    BUNfJAUnV   AT   KAU.MAXG. 


The  village  of  Karmang  communicates  with  the  left  bank  of  the 
Indus  and  thence  with  the  Skardu  and  Kashmir  road  by  means  of  a 
long  rope  bridge  across  the  Indus.  This  was  our  first  experience  of 
these  strange  bridges  known  as  jhiila.  They  are  to  be  found  in  every 
part  of  the  Himalaya,  and  are  made  either  of  canes  fastened  together 
in  bundles,  or  of  cords,  or  of  plaited  grasses  as  in  Sikkim,  or  of  wathes 
of  willow  or  birch  twisted  into  ropes,  as  in  Baltistan  and  Tibet.  While 
the  camp  was  being  set  up  near  the  bungalow  two  of  our  party,  impatient 
to  experience  the  sensations  we  had  so  often  read  of  in  books  of  Himalayan 
travel,  climbed  up  on  the  big  pile  of  heavy  stones  which  holds  the  ends 


From   Oltliinjithan^-  to  Skarclu. 


115 


of  the  cables  forming  the  treadway  and  balustrades  of  the  bridge. 
These  three  cables  stretch  across  the  river  in  parallel  curves.  One, 
which  is  thicker  than  the  others,  hangs  somewhat  lower,  and  upon  this 
you  walk,  while  the  smaller  cable.s  are  higher  up  and  are  arranged  one 
on  each  side  to  hold  by  with  your  hands.  At  intervals  of  about  two  yards 
thin  bands  join  the  footway  cable  to  the  side-ropes,  so  that  the  whole 
thing  takes  the  shape  of  a  sort  of  skeleton  trough  with  a  pointed  bottom. 
The  two  ropes  which  form  the  handrails  are  kept  a  certain  distance 


JHCLA   BRIDUE   AT    K-UISLOJU. 


apart  by  cross-bars  fitted  into  them  at  intervals  of  10  or  12  yards.  The 
only  difficulty  of  crossing  consists  in  climbing  over  these  cross-bars, 
and  the  greatest  danger  is  of  scratching  your  hands  on  the  sharp  points 
of  the  birch  twigs  which  project  everywhere  from  the  rough  cables. 

On  the  whole  jhula  bridges  are  simple,  strong  and  cheap,  and  the 
system  might  do  good  service  in  some  of  our  own  mountain  valleys. 
The  crossing  is  really  perfectly  simple,  and  offers  no  difficulty  as  long 
as  the  bridge  is  properly  kept  up  and  the  cables  taut.  But  when  half 
of  the  cross-bars  are  broken  and  the  bridge  sags  in  the  middle  owing 
to  the  relaxing  of  the  cables,  the  crossing  may  become  most  disagreeable, 

(9221)  n  2 


116 


Chapter  VIII. 


especially  when  the  wind  blows  the  whole  thing  about  like  a  swing. 
None  of  us  ever  suffered  from  giddiness  even  when  the  bridges  were 
hung  very  high  over  swift  torrents.  But  you  have  a  feeling  as  though 
the  bridge  were  being  carried  upstream  and  you  with  it.  As  a  rule 
from  four  to  six  people  are  able  to  cross  at  a  time,  but  if  the  condition 
of  the  cables  is  doubtful  only  two  should  try  it  at  once.  It  is  related 
of  the  Greek  hermitages  among  the  high  cliffs  of  Thessaly  that  the  rope 
which  is  used  to  pull  people  up  to  the  threshold  in  a  basket  is  never 


BALTI   BRIDUE    MADE    OF   TWISTED    BRANCHES. 


changed  until  it  breaks,  and  every  one  takes  his  chance.  The  same 
tale  is,  of  course,  told  of  the  jhula  bridges,  and  Oriental  inertia  and 
fataUsm  may  give  it  a  semblance  of  truth.  It  is,  however,  somewhat 
difficult  to  prove. 

Near  Karmang  the  valley  narrows  into  a  gorge,  which  Thomson 
gives  as  the  end  of  the  basin  of  a  great  lake  which,  in  his  opinion,  used 
to  reach  from  here  as  far  as  Rondu,  a  little  below  Skardu.  From  here 
the  valley  slopes  north-eastward  in  a  wide  curve  round  the  foot  of  the 
Deosai  table-land,  and  now  grows  a  little  wider,  notwithstanding  a 
number  of  narrow  twists  and  bends  into  which  it  is  forced  by  a  series 


From   ( )lthiiigtliang   to   Skardii. 


ii; 


of  very  steep  rocky  spurs.  Just  beyond  one  of  these,  which  forms  a 
precipice  overlianging  the  river,  lies  the  great  oasis  of  Tolti,  which  fills 
the  whole  width  of  the  tributary  valley  of  Kusuro  Cho.  The  green 
glade  thus  shut  in  by  steep  mountain  walls  is  covered  with  luxuriant 


THE    CAMP   AT   TOLTI. 


vegetation,  among  which,  in  addition  to  the  usual  apricots,  poplars 
and  willows,  we  noted  walnut,  pear,  plane  and  mulberry  trees,  the  last 
festooned  with  fronds  of  grape-vine. 

Our  way  led  uphill  through  the  large  and  prosperous  village,  and 
we  passed  beyond  the  dak  bungalow  to  the  polo  ground,  which  is  about 

(9221)  I.  3 


118 


Chapter  VIIT. 


300  feet  long  and  100  feet  wide,  running  across  the  little  valley  and 
surrounded  by  shady  trees,  quite  at  the  top  of  the  oasis.  Here  the 
Duke  was  welcomed  by  the  Rajah  of  the  district,  who  resides  at  Parkutta, 
our  stage  for  the  next  day.  He  was  a  man  in  the  prime  of  life,  wearing 
a  round  beard  dved  with  henna,  and  swathed  in  white  muslin  with  a  big 


..2tnw^.<<BlkB»««SU^ju. 


THE    CROWD   ON    THE    POLO    CiKOUND    AT   TOLTI. 


white  turban  on  his  head,  like  a  Mullah.  The  Tehsildar  of  Skardu  also 
came  to  Tolti  to  meet  the  Duke,  and  the  Kargil  Tehsildar  took  his  leave, 
as  we  had  reached  the  confines  of  his  jurisdiction. 

At  the  polo  ground  was  gathered  a  crowd  of  several  hundred  people, 
kept  in  bounds  with  unwonted  severity  by  chuprassis.  Throughout  the 
last  two  stages  the  wliole  of  the  luggage  had  been  carried  on  the  backs 
of  coolies,  but  at  Tolti  we  were  again  able  to  hire  ponies.  It  was  the 
first  place  where  the  coolies  seemed  unwilling  to  enter  into  an  engage- 
ment. The  Rajah  and  his  high  officials  marched  about  in  the  crowd, 
seized   hold  of  the  more  refractory  subjects   and  practically  dragged 


From   ()ltliiiij;tliaiig"  to   Skarclu. 


119 


them  into  our  presence.  Perhaps  on  some  former  occasion  they  had 
been  defrauded  of  their  pay,  because  throughout  our  journey  we  always 
found  the  natives  rather  anxious  to  be  engaged.  Some  of  the  horses, 
too,  were  recalcitrant,  refused  to  be  loaded,  kicked  and  rolled.  These 
were,  no  doubt,  polo  ponies,  who  objected  to  the  degradation  of  carrying 
loads. 

The  afternoon  was  windy  as  usual,  but  the  little  valley  was  sheltered 
by  the  hills  and  so  green  that  we  had  neither  sand  nor  dust,  and  enjoyed 


A   MOSQUE    OF  THE   lllllH   IXDUS    VALLEY. 


to  the  utmost  the  cool  shade  of  the  trees.  Little  rivulets  ran  all  round 
our  camp,  and  their  murmur  mingled  with  the  rusthng  of  the  leaves 
in  the  breeze. 

The  next  stage  was  of  about  five  and  a  half  hours,  and  was  more 
diverse  and  entertaining  than  the  preceding  ones.  During  the  second 
half  the  way  runs  through  several  villages  whose  gardens  join,  forming 
wide  belts  of  vegetation,  where  the  path  is  all  in  the  shade.  The  houses 
are  better  built,  some  of  sun-baked  bricks,  and  the  occupants  even 
indulge  in  the  luxury  of  a  verandah.  Now  and  again  the  windows 
have  carved  wooden  frames.  There  were  a  few  mosques  with  flat  roofs, 
formed  by  long  transverse  beams  resting  upon  uprights  and  outer  walls 
of  masonry,  now  and  then  strengthened  by  incorporating  the  trunks 
of  trees,  as  in  the  houses  of  Srinagar.  The  eastern  facade  was  adorned 
with  a  portico.  '' ' 

(9221)  II   4 


120 


Chapter  VIII. 


Parkutta  is  a  big  village  standing  over  300  feet  above  the  river,  built 
upon  both  sides  of  a  deep  ravine  cut  through  the  thick  alluvial  deposit 
by  a  torrent.  As  in  Karmang  the  old  palace  of  the  Rajah  stands  upon 
a  high  rock  dominating  the  town.  At  the  entrance  of  the  village  the 
Duke  was  greeted  by  a  musical  band  that  marched  before  the  caravan 
as  far  as  the  polo  ground,  which  is  much  larger  than  the  one  at  Tolti. 
The  players  squatted  on  their  heels  in  the  middle  of  the  polo  ground. 


CEMETERY    AT   PARKUTTA. 


Their  instruments  were  drums,  tambourines,  horns  and  a  gigantic 
straight  trumpet.  A  big  crowd  had  gathered  round,  presenting  a  lively 
spectacle.  The  front  rows  sqiiatted  upon  their  heels,  those  behind 
them  stood  up,  and  behind  these  others  perched  upon  the  wall  enclosing 
the  ground.  Some  of  the  young  children  and  boys  wore  crowns 
of  leaves.  Later  on  they  adorn  themselves  with  flowers.  We  saw  some 
Baltis  with  black  or  dark  hair  and  a  fair  beard  or  moustache.  The  whole 
population  spent  a  great  part  of  the  afternoon  on  the  polo  ground, 
grouped  around  three  sides  of  the  square  at  a  distance  of  some  50  yards 
from  us.     They  seemed  to  be  naturally  polite,  respectful  and  orderly. 


From   Oltliin^^thang  to  Skardu. 


121 


Hardly  liad  our  tents  been  set  up  when  the  Duke  received  the  official 
visit  of  the  Rajah,  who  was  followed  by  a  servant  carrying  his  son  and 
heir,  a  child  of  four  or  five  years  old,  dressed  in  bright  colours  and  with 
a  turban  cjuite  out  of  proportion  to  his  slender  little  neck.  He  was 
very  serious,  and  saluted  us  with  amusing  gravity,  lifting  his  little  hand 
to  his  forehead.  Servants  brought  dishes  of  cakes  and  two  huge  copper 
teapots    full  of    Balti  tea,  a  sweetish  greasy  beverage,  pale    pink    in 


A    l)AN(  EK    AT   KVKKITTA. 


colour.  The  orchestra  then  began  to  play  again,  and  four  dancers 
whirled  slowly  round  and  round  on  their  own  axis,  following  the  cadence 
with  the  rliytlimic  motions  of  the  arms  and  head  common  to  all  Oriental 
dancing. 

At  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  a  game  of  polo  was  organized  in  honour 
of  the  Duke.  Twelve  players  took  part.  In  the  excitement  of  the 
game  horses  and  men  totally  changed  their  aspect.  It  seems  strange 
that  a  game  which  requires  so  much  pluck,  strength  and  dexterity 
should  have  been  evolved  among  a  people  of  timid  disposition,  and 
in  so  many  ways  rough   and  primitive.     It  is,   however,   improbable 


122 


Chapter   \'I1I. 


that  polo  was,  as  Ujfalvv  would  have  us  beheve,  inveuted  in  Baltistan, 
a  country  so  rough  that,  with  few  exceptions,  there  is  no  place  for 
galloping  outside  the  polo  grounds  themselves,  which  are  levelled  and 
beaten  on  purpose.  The  origin  of  the  game  is  certainly  remote.  It 
seems  to  have  been  common  at  the  court  of  the  Mogols.  Then  the 
tradition  was  lost  in  India,  and  only  kept  up  at  Manipur  (on  the  con- 
fines  of  Burma),   in  Baltistan,   Ladakh   and   Gilgit.  ^     The   English   of 


A    BAI.TI    I'OLO    CAME. 


Calcutta  learned  the  game  in  Manipur,  and  were  so  attracted  by  its 
fine  and  manly  quahties  that  they  made  it  their  own  and  have  diffused 
it  throughout  the  world. 

About  eight  miles  below  Parkutta  the  Indus  meets  one  of  its  greatest 
confluents,  the  river  Shyok,  which  comes  down  from  the  Dapsang 
table-land,  gathering  in  its  course  of  nearly  400  miles  the  waters  of  the 
numberless  glaciers  which  flow  down  the  southern  slopes  of  half  the 
Karakoram.     As  at  Dras,  the  meeting  of  the  waters  takes  place  at  the 

'  Drew  quotes  an  extract  from  the  history  of  the  Kiiiperor  Manuel  Coninenus,  by  Johannes 
Cinnanuis,  which  was  communicated  to  The  Times  of  June  12th,  1874.  by  an  anonymous 
correspondent,  showing  that  polo  was  played  at  Constantinople  in  the  middle  of  the  thirt<'enth 
century  and  that  the  emperors  themselves  took  part  in  it.  Th.  Thom.son  (Jonr.  lioij.  Geog.  Sor.  19, 
1849,  p.  25)  says  that  the  native  name  of  the  game  is  changan.  Roero  di  Cortanze  (op.  cit.) 
calls  it  atka  ;  while  according  to  Ujfalvy  poh  means  ball.  Vigne  has  given  us  one  of  the  best 
descriptions  of  the  game,  while  Drew  goes  minutely  into  the  rules,  (lie  dimensions  of  the  ground, 
the  arrangement  of  the  teams,  etc. 


From   Olthingtluuig-  to  Skardu.  123 

bottom  of  a  narrow  gorge.  Oestreich  has  identified  at  a  height  of  from 
700  to  1,000  feet  above  the  present  level,  on  the  walls  of  both  valleys, 
what  he  considers  the  remains  of  level  terraces  which  marked  the  con- 
fluence of  these  two  rivers  at  an  earUer  period. 

There  are  signs  which  indicate  that  the  Shyok  was  at  one  time  filled 
up  by  a  glacier  which  projected  into  the  Indus  valley,  where  it  formed 
a  barrier  some  1,000  feet  in  height,  but  did  not,  however,  dam  the 
course  of  the  river.  This  phenomenon  can  be  seen  to-day  in  the  upper 
Nubra  valley,  and  we  shall  find  a  most  clearly  marked  example  in  the 
case  of  the  Biafo  glacier. 

The  whole  of  this  region  is  still  very  Httle  known,  and  the  data  we 
possess  regarding  its  glacial  history,  as  well  as  all  other  questions 
concerning  the  Indus  basin,  are  so  incomplete  as  to  be  hopelessly  insufficient 
to  support  any  general  theory.  As  early  as  1847  Thomson  ol)served 
that  the  he  of  the  loose  rocks  and  detritus  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorges 
and  lateral  valleys  suggested  a  glacial  origin.  Conway  identified  them 
more  explicitly  as  loose  boulders  and  moraine  residuum.  Oestreich 
beheves  that  the  Indus  valley  itself  was  never  occupied  by  a  glacier, 
but  only  the  tributary  valleys.^ 

In  fact,  geologists  in  general  seem  to  hold  that  the  Himalayan  region 
has  ]iever  been  the  scene  of  periods  of  "  Inlandeis  "  (hke  Greenland, 
Europe  and  North  America),  nor  of  large  "  pedemontane  "  glaciers 
(such  as  the  Malaspina  glacier  in  Alaska,  and  the  former  glaciers  on  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Alps)  ;  but  has  merely  witnessed  periods  of  very 
considerable  expansion  of  the  glaciers  in  the  mountains  themselves, 
such  as  took  place  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  where  only  the  largest  glaciers 
succeeded  in  emerging  from  the  valleys  as  far  as  the  edge  of  the  plain. 
Godwin  Austen  is  of  this  opinion,  and  cites  indications  of  two  distinct 
glacial  periods,  separated  by  an  interval  of  milder  chmate.  Strachey 
and  MedUcott  hold  similar  views.  ^  Ellsworth  Huntingdon  counts  five 
periods  of  moist  and  cold  climate,  separated  by  interglacial  epochs  of 
dry  and  warm  climate,  succeeding  each  other  up  to  a  recent  period  ;  but 
he  calls  the  former  periods  -fluvial  instead  of  glacial,  because  they  are 
distinguished  by  increase  in  the  rivers  rather  than  by  any  extensive 

1  T.  Thomson,  Western  Himalaya  and  Tibet.  London  1852  ;  8ik  W.  .M.  Conwav.  op.  cit.  : 
Oestreich,  op.  cit. 

'  Lieut. -Col.  Godwin  Austen,  Proc.  of  the  Geog.  Section  uf  the  British  Assoc,  {in  Proc.  Hoy. 
Oeog.  Soc.  N.S.  5,  1883,  p.  610) :  Sir  John  Strachey,  India.  London  1888;  Medlicott  and 
Blanford.  op.  cit. 


124  Chapter   \'III. 

filling  up  of  the  valleys  by  glaciers.  ^  R.  D.  Oldham  mentions  only 
three  periods  of  "glacial  extension."-  I  might  mention  here  that 
Schlagintweit  attributes  the  diminution  of  the  glaciers  to  the  deep 
cutting  of  the  valleys  and  the  consequent  formation  of  wide  surfaces, 
which,  when  heated  by  the  sun,  would  give  rise  to  ascending  currents 
of  hot  air.  * 

The  volume  of  the  river  Indus  is  nearly  doubled  by  its  meeting 
with  the  Shyok,  yet  owing  to  the  narrowing  of  the  main  valley  below 
the  meeting-point  it  seems  hardly  increased,  as  it  cannot  expand  in  the 
narrow  gorge,  but  only  runs  deeper.  Colonel  Montgomerie  observed 
the  same  lack  of  apparent  increase  in  the  Indus  at  its  juncture  both 
with  the  Dras  and  with  the  Zaskar  near  Leh.  It  was  in  this  portion 
of  the  valley  that  we  found  the  largest  deposits  of  clay,  quite  pure  or 
mingled  with  a  few  stones.  '^  No  fossils  were  found  by  which  it  would 
be  possible  to  date  the  deposits. 

In  the  wide  bit  of  valley  which  follows  after  the  gorges  of  Shyok 
lies  the  oasis  of  Gol.  We  reached  it  by  a  long  avenue  of  big  willow 
trees  buried  half-way  up  their  trunks  in  sand.  Immediately  behind 
the  lines  of  trees  crops  had  been  sown  in  the  midst  of  the  sand.  It 
seems  as  though  the  sprouting  wheat  must  be  buried  at  the  first  gust 
of  wind,  and  one  wonders  how  it  can  ever  reach  maturity.  This  is 
possibly  a  means  of  winning  new  soil  for  cultivation,  but  it  gives  the 
impression  rather  of  gradual  encroachment  of  the  desert  on  the  oasis, 
such  as  occurs  in  many  places  in  central  India. 

On  May  8th  a  stage  of  21  miles  brought  us  to  Skardu.  We  struck 
camp  at  Gol  at  half-past  three  in  the  morning  by  moonlight,  and  were 
soon  on  the  road.  Little  by  little  the  valley  grew  wider  and  more  open. 
The  path  ran  along  the  bottom  in  deep  sand,  where  the  ponies  were  a 
great  resource. 

'  Ellsworth  Huntingdon,  The  Vale  of  Kashmir.  Bull.  Amer.  Geog.  Soc.  38,  1896.  p.  657  ; 
and  The  Pulse  of  Asia.     London  1897. 

*  R.  D.  Oldham,  Note  on  the  Glariation  and  History  of  the  Sind  Valley,  Kashmir.  Her.  Oeol 
Sun:  of  India,  31,  1904,  p.  142. 

'  Schlagintweit,  Jour.  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Bengal,  26,  1857. 

*  At  many  points,  especially  near  the  river  and  on  expanses  of  clay  recently  abandoned  by 
the  water,  I  have  noticed  that  the  sand  was  quite  covered  with  a  white  eflSorescence  like  hoar- 
frost. This  phenomenon  seems  widely  diffused  throughout  the  region.  I  met  with  it  in  the 
Shigar  and  Braldoh  valleys.  Chemical  analysis  proves  it  to  be  merely  carbonate  of  lime  (calcite). 
Thomson  (op.  cit.)  collected  apparently  similar  efflorescences  in  Tibet,  on  the  margins  of  springs, 
but  there  the  substance  was  sesqui -carbonate  of  soda. 


Polo  at    raikutta 


From   01tliin<j:thaii<>;  to  Skardii. 


125 


About  half-way,  some  10  miles  below  Gol,  the  valley  takes  a  sharp 
turn  to  the  south  and  then  bears  to  the  west,  becoming  wider  and  wider 
until  it  forms  a  great  plain.  This  is  the  table-land  of  Skardu,  about 
20  miles  long  by  5  miles  wide,  and  covered  with  sand,  which  hes  in  long 
parallel  waves  or  low  dunes  as  in  great  deserts.  The  Indus  winds  its 
tortuous  course  through  the  plain  between  high  banks  of  sand  [and 
deposit. 


MHBV/.'^  .    .jr.<     d<71   T" JM                          VBH 

1 
1 

i 

SastMWy 

1  '«l«a,i:  uses           1 

"^  A 

i_. ' 

MOSQUE    IX    THE    INDUS   VALLEY. 


The  view  over  the  plain  to  the  far-off  chains  of  mountains  on  the 
horizon  appears  vast  indeed  after  the  long  journey  between  narrow 
valley  walls.  Northward  above  the  spur  which  divides  us  from  the 
Shigar  valley  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Mango  Gusor 
range,  20,633  feet  high.  Westward  and  southward  the  level  sand  seems 
to  run  to  the  feet  of  a  great  chain  of  snow  peaks  which  rise  10,000  feet 
above  the  plain. 

It  is  in  this  plain  that  the  Shigar  river,  fed  by  some  of  the  greatest 
glaciers  in  the  world,  beside  numberless  smaller  ones,  meets  the  Indus. 
There  is  much  to  interest  both  geographer  and  geologist.  Oestreich 
claims  that  the  origin  of  the  plain  is  techtonic,  and  not  to  be  attributed 


11' t; 


duipter  Vlir. 


to  erosion.  On  this  hypothesis  the  basin  would  be  primitive,  and  by 
its  formation  would  have  determined  the  course  and  the  meeting  of 
the  Indus  and  the  Shigar. 

In  the  middle  of  the  plain  rises  a  huge  round-backed  rock,  over 
1,000  feet  high,  which  looks  Uke  some  strange  monster  crouching  upon 
the  sand.  On  top  of  it  Colonel  Godwin  Austen  thought  that  he  could 
detect  stratified  lake  deposits,  which,  together  with  other  indications, 
would  go  to  prove  that  before  the  glacial  period  the  basin  was  occupied 


THE    LSDIS    ABOVE   SKARDU,    WITH   MAN-GO    OUSOR   IN    THE    BACKGROUND. 


by  a  lake  up  to  a  great  height.  Schlagintweit  was  also  of  opinion  that 
the  sedimentary  deposits  which  are  found  at  a  great  height  throughout 
the  valley  had  been  formed  by  an  ancient  lake.^  As  in  the  case  of  the 
Kashmir  basin  and  other  parts  of  the  Indus  valley,  so  also  in  the  case 
of  the  Skardu  plain  the  lacustrian  theory  has  gradually  lost  groimd. 
On  the  other  hand,  Godwin  Austen's  observations  as  to  the  undoubted 
traces  of  glacier  action  over  this  plain  in  the  remote  past  have  been 
strengthened  and  amphfied  by  all  subsequent  geologists. 

The    displacements    and    steep    angles    noticed   in    the    sedimentary 
strata  (Drew),  as  well  as  the  rounded  surfaces  of  the  rocks  protruding 

'  Lieut. -Col.  Godwin  Austen,  The  Glaciers  of  the  Mustagh  Range.     Jour,  of  the  Roy.  Geog. 
Soc.  34,  1864,  p.  19  ;  H.  von  Sciy.AGiNTw-Err,  op.  cit. 


Fi-om   Dltliiiij'-tlianir  to  Skardu. 


127 


above  their  level,  are  attributed  to  the  pressure  and  friction  of  glaciers, 
while  the  deposits  on  the  rock  of  Skardu  have  been  recognized  as 
morenic  in  character.  The  early  hypothesis  which  placed  the  sources 
of  these  glaciers  in  the  mountains  to  the  south  of  the  plain  has  been 
replaced  by  Lydekker's  theory,  derived  from  the  glacier  traces  in  the 
Shigar  valley  and  accepted  by  Conway  and  Oestreich,  to  the  effect 
that  a  gigantic  glacier  projected  from  the  mouth  of  the  Shigar  valley 
so  as  to  cover  the  whole  plain. 


THE    BASIX   AND    ROCK   OF   SK-VBDU. 


Five  miles  above  Skardu,  at  a  point  where  a  projecting  spur  runs 
down  to  the  river,  a  little  fort  stands  across  the  path,  and  we  pass 
through  a  vaulted  corridor  of  it,  so  low  as  to  oblige  us  to  dismount. 
A  little  farther  on  a  bend  of  the  river  Indus  quite  cuts  off  the  way. 
We  have  to  go  down  the  steep  alluvial  bank  to  the  level  of  the  stream, 
and  follow  its  curve  along  an  avenue  of  gnarled  and  twisted  old  willows, 
whence  we  ascend  again  to  the  plain.  Here  at  the  top  of  the  ascent 
the  Duke  was  received  by  the  Rajah  of  Skardu  and  his  brothers,  accom- 
panied by  a  suite  of  dignitaries,  a  numerous  orchestra  and  a  great 
crowd.  Salaams  were  exchanged,  and  we  formed  into  a  long  procession, 
preceded  by  the  band.     With  all  this  pomp  we  walked  for  over  a  mile, 


1>S 


Chapter   \III. 


flanked  by  the  crowd  on  either  hand,  and  at  about  half-past  eleven  we 
reached  the  bungalow  of  the  civil  engineer,  who  had  put  it  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Duke  in  his  absence.  The  guides  were  lodged  in  one  of 
the  numerous  buildings  of  the  dak  bungalow,  a  huge  place  with  separate 
buildings  for  servants,  kitchens,  etc. 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  lORT  AT  SKARDU. 


The  wide  verandah  of  the  bungalow  was  quickly  turned  into  a 
rece])tion  room.  The  Rajah,  the  Tehsildar  and  the  chief  merchants 
of  Skardu  paid  ceremonious  visits  to  the  Duke,  followed  by  servants 
bringing  all  sorts  of  delicacies,  such  as  sweet  almonds,  dried  apricots, 
raisins,  cakes  and,  above  all,  a  wealth  of  fresh  vegetables  such  as  we 
had  not  seen  since  we  left  Srinagar. 

Our  own  quarters  and  the  neighbouring  group  of  dak  bungalows 
stand  to  the  east  of  the  town,  which  stretches  between  the  rock  of 
Skardu  and  the  base  of  the  mountains,  with  straggling  suburbs  scattered 
through  the  plain  as  far  as  the  villages  which  lie  at  the  very  foot  of 
the  mountains. 

To  the  south  of  Skardu  we  observed  a  curious  wall  stretching  across 
the  mouth  of  a  tributary  valley,  so  perfectly  regular  as  to  give  the 
impression  of  an  artificial  dam.  It  is  really  a  moraine,  which  closes  the 
entrance  into  the  Sutpa  valley,  thus  forming  a  lake  three-quarters  of  a 


Knmi  Oltliiiijitlumji-  to  Skardu.  129 

mile  long,  which  Ocstreich  notes  as  the  only  example  in  the  whole  i-egion 
of  a  lake  of  glacial  formation. 

Upon  the  detached  rock  between  Skardu  and  the  Indus  stands  an 
ancient  fort  built  about  1610  by  All  Sher,  the  first  of  the  dynasty  of 
independent  Mohammedan  chiefs  which  came  to  an  end  when  Ahmed 
Shah  was  conquered  and  dethroned  by  the  Sikhs  in  1840.  The  fort 
is  now  abandoned,  and  another  was  built  by  the  Sikhs  at  the  foot  of 
the  rock,  on  the  verge  of  the  plain. 

The  legend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  is  so  living  throughout 
central  Asia,  has  penetrated  even  to  this  remote  spot,  and  tells  us  that 
Skardu  is  a  mere  corruption  of  Iskandaria,  or  city  of  Alexander.  The 
tradition  is,  however,  quite  baseless.  It  is  true  that  early  traveller's 
called  the  town  Iskardo.  but  according  to  Thomson  the  real  Tibetan 
name  is  Skardo  or  Kardo.  The  Baltis  are  unable  to  pronounce  the 
hard  .■>■  followed  by  a  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  and 
always  prefix  an  i  in  the  case  of  English  words  beginning  in  this 
manner. 

The  place  seenLS  to  have  been  far  more  prosperous  and  civilized 
in  the  past  than  at  the  present  day.  Thomson,  who  made  a  long  stay 
there,  spending  the  whole  winter  in  1874,  found  ruins  of  buildings 
constructed  of  cjuarried  stone,  marble  fountains,  hanging  gardens, 
aqueducts,  etc.  Ujfalvy  collected  ancient  household  utensils  worked 
with  the  finest  art.  To-day  the  whole  town,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  nucleus,  which  includes  the  wretched  bazar,  lies  straggling  over 
the  plain  in  small  groups  of  huts,  forming  Uttle  islands  of  cultivation 
dotted  at  random  over  the  desert.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  fruit 
trees,  now  already  past  blossom  and  covered  with  leaves,  and  all  sorts 
of  cereals  and  vegetables. 

The  houses  are,  for  the  most  part,  two  stories  high.  The  lower  story 
is  built  of  rough  stones  and  mud,  about  nine  feet  high,  and  is  used  for 
stabling  and  to  live  in  during  the  long  severe  winter.  The  upper  floor 
is  of  rough  basket-work  plastered  over  with  mud,  or  even  of  wood,  and 
is  usually  smaller  than  the  ground  floor,  so  as  to  leave  part  of  the  roof 
of  the  latter  for  a  terrace,  which  is  used  as  a  threshing-floor  and  granary. 
Skardu  has  also  a  small  number  of  houses  inhabited  by  the  upper  class, 
constructed  as  in  other  Oriental  cities  with  walls  plastered  with  lime. 
They  have  no  windows,  and  but  one  door,  which  leads  into  the  iimer 
court,  upon  which  the  roonLs  and  verandahs  open. 

(9221)  I 


130 


Chapter   \'I1I. 


The  lialf-day  we  spent  at  Skardu  passed  very  quickly,  for  we  had 
hard  work  to  do.  First,  there  was  the  usual  inspection  and  sorting 
of  baggage,  cooUes  to  pay  oft'  and  new  ones  to  engage.  Next  the  Duke 
sent  ahead  147  loads  to  Shigar.  Then  we  laid  in  supplies  in  the  bazar 
— tea  and  sugar,  salt  and  tobacco,  needles  and  thread  and  coloured 
cotton  handkerchiefs,  all  to  be  kept  for  the  coohes  who  were  to  be  with 
us  in  the  high  region.  In  the  bazar  we  saw  a  few  stray  dogs.  In  the 
other  towns  of  Baltistan  we  had  found  none  at  all,  W'hether  from  the 


TYPICAL   BALTI    HOUSE. 


Mohammedan  dishke  of  dogs  or  because  the  earth  supphes  food  in  so 
niggardly  a  measure  to  man  we  were  unable  to  make  out. 

The  Duke  made  the  necessary  arrangements  to  have  the  meteoro- 
logical observations  taken  in  Skardu  three  times  a  day  through  the 
period  of  the  expedition,  and  also  organized  our  postal  service.  The 
Government  telegraph  and  post  runners  do  not  go  beyond  Skardu,  but 
we  were  to  remain  in  communication  with  our  homes  through  special 
runners  engaged  by  the  Duke ;  they  performed  their  service  with 
marvellous  exactitude  up  to  our  very  farthest  post  on  the  Karakoram 
glaciers. 

At  five  o'clock  we  went  to  see  the  polo  match  got  up  in  honour  of  the 
Duke.     The  polo  ground  is  very  large,  and  Ues  on  a  flat  natural  terrace 


From   Olthingthanj:^  to  Skardu. 


131 


to  the  west  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  great  sandy  plain  and  the 
splendid  amphitheatre  of  snowy  ranges,  between  which  the  great  Shigar 
valley  cuts  a  wide  trench  northward.  On  one  side  is  a  high  covered 
stand,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  orchestra  played  incessantly.  All  round 
was  the  festive  crowd,  diversified  by  the  khaki  uniforms  of  the  soldiers 
and  the  white,  pink  or  blue  turbans  of  the  important  personages  of 
the  place.  The  polo  players  were  sixteen  in  number,  all  dressed  in 
white.  The  Rajah  was  a  first-rate  horseman,  following  and  hitting  the 
ball  very  cleverly  with  his  polo  mallet,  supported  by  his  own  side,  with 


THE    RAJAH  S    POLO    TEAM   AT   SKARDU. 


their  great  white  cloaks  fluttering  in  the  sunshine.  It  was  really  a  fine 
sight.  After  the  match  we  went  back  to  our  work,  and  the  polo  giound 
was  invaded  by  boys,  who  continued  the  game  on  foot,  practising  hand 
and  eve  for  the  difficult  art. 

The  Duke  deposited  with  a  Skardu  merchant  the  portion  of  our 
provisions  which  would  be  needed  for  the  return  journey,  also  a  con- 
siderable bulk  of  money.  It  is  a  long,  tiresome  business  to  count  all 
this  small  change.  In  our  few  free  minutes  we  wrote  letters  and 
telegrams.  At  about  eleven  o'clock,  after  a  long  hea\^'  day  of  more  than 
eighteen  hours,  we  went  to  bed  tired  out,  but  glad  to  have  got  through 
the  first  big  stage  of  our  journey.  We  had  covered  about  225  miles 
in  eleven  days  among  the  chains  of  the  western  Himalaya. 

(9221)  1  2 


CHAPTER  IX. 


FROM    SKARDU    TO    ASKOLEY. 
THE    SHIGAR    AND    BRALDOH    VALLEYS. 

Crossing  tin-  Indus. — The  Oasis  of  Shigar. — The  Mo.sque  and  the  Village.  —  Presents,  Polo, 
Concerts  and  Dancing.  —  The  Shigar  Valley.  — The  Meeting  of  the  Basha  and  the  Bialdoli. 

—  Glacial  History. — The  Chain  of  Mango  (lusor  and  Koser  (Iiinge.  —  The  B"'  Chain. — 
The  Skoro  Lumba  Pas.s.  —  Crossing  the  Braldoh  on  Zlmks.  —  Dusso.  —  The  Braldoh 
Valley.  —  Cioniboro.  —  Mud     Streams.- — Rope    Bridges.  —  Chongo.  —  Balti    Graveyards. 

—  The  Hot  Springs  of  Chongo.  —  Askoley.  —  Rearrangement  of  Baggage.  —  Provisions 
for  the  Coolies.  —  Isolation  of  Askoley.  —  Raids  from  Hunza  and  Xagar.  —  The  Ram 
Chikor.  —  The  Lamhai'dar  of  .\skolev. 


On  Sunday,  May  9th,  at  half- 
past  six  in  the  morning,  we 
left  Skarrlu  witli  111  cooHes 
and  eight  .saddle-ponies  to 
cross  the  Indus  and  pene- 
trate into  the  Karakorani 
ranges.  Fifteen  coolies  and 
fortv-eight  horses  had  been 
sent  ahead  the  day  before. 

There  is  a  way  to  get 
from  the  Indus  into  the 
Shigar  valley  without  going 
through  Skardu.  by  crossing 
the  Indus  at  Gol  and  follow- 
ing its  right  bank  up  to  the 
spur  between  the  two  valleys, 
then  crossing  this  over  a  pass 
that  leads  directly  to  Shigar. 
A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  this  route  is  by  far  the  shorter. 
The  difficulty  is  that  at  Gol  there  is  no  means  of  crossing  the  Indus 
except  on  small  native  rafts,  and  it  would  have  taken  the  whole  day  to 
get  a  party  like  ours  across.  Besides,  we  had  too  many  important 
things  to  do  at  Skardu  to  think  of  leaving  it  out. 


From  Skardii  to  Askolev. 


133 


We  retiated  our  route  of  the  day  before  to  a  point  where  the  path 
comes  down  from  the  alluvial  terrace  into  the  river  bed.  Some  way 
up  the  bank  above  the  meeting  of  the  Indus  and  the  Shigar  a  couple 
of  great  barges  were  awaiting  us,  upon  which  we  embarked  with 
baggage,  coolies  and  ponies.  Each  boat  was  handled  by  a  dozen 
powerful  oiii'snion.  who  put  the  whole  expedition  across  in  half  an  hour, 


CR0SS1>G    THE    INDUS. 


landing  on  the  right  bank  nearly  opposite  the  starting-point,  in  spite 
of  the  strong  current  and  the  breadth  of  the  stream,  which  here  is  about 
300  yards. 

We  mounted  our  ponies,  and  rode  a  couple  of  hours  up  the  right  bank 
parallel  to  our  course  of  the  day  before  on  the  left,  and  along  the  foot 
of  the  spur  which  separates  the  Indus  from  the  Shigar  valley.  This 
spur  was  once  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  and  its  upheaval  at  a  recent 
I)eriod  between  the  two  valleys  has  forced  both  rivers  to  bend  westward 
before  meeting.  The  spur  slopes  down  into  the  vast  sandy  delta  formed 
by  the  meeting  of  tlie  rivers,  and  ends  in  a  descending  series  of  huge 
blocks,  rising  singly  out  of  the  plain,  separated  from  each  other  by 
stretches  of  the  delta  sand.     I  fancy  that  in  times  of  exceptional  flood 

(9221)  ,  3 


134 


Cliaptcr  IX. 


the  Shigar  nuiy  overflow  into  the  Indits  valley  through  these  gaps. 
There  are  six  of  these  great  rocks  quite  distinct  from  one  another,  and  the 
last  but  one  is  1,300  feet  high.  Between  it  and  the  last,  which  is  none 
other  than  the  citadel  rock  of  Skardu,  flows  the  river  Indus.  On 
either  side  of  the  spur  lies  a  vast  extent  of  sand  drifted  into  clearly 
marked  dunes,  witli  a  general  trend  from  north  to  south  and  the  steepest 
slope  turned  to  the  east.  They  make  marching  heavy  foi'  ponies  and 
cooUes.     There  is  no  trace  of  vegetation. 


THK    PATH   ON   THK    RKJUT   BANK   OF   THE    INDUS. 


In  this  way  we  covered  some  three  miles  along  the  bank  of  the  Indus, 
and  then  made  for  the  ridge,  following  up  a  very  narrow  and  tortuous 
rocky  ravine,  where  a  few  eu])horl)iH  were  growing,  and  which,  after  a 
short  ascent,  led  us  to  a  wide  rounded  saddle  known  as  Strongdokmo. 
Here  the  vast  Shigar  valley  opened  before  us,  stretching  north-east 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  see.  On  both  sides  of  the  saddle  boulders  have 
been  observed  which,  if  taken  together  with  the  polished  round-backed 
rocks  {ruches  moiitonnees) ,  prove  that  the  great  Shigar  glacier  must  have 
flowed  over  this  spur.  We  now  cut  diagonally  down  the  north  slope 
of  the  ridge,  and  soon  reach  the  bottom  and  green  cultivated  land. 


From  Skartlu  to  Askolev. 


135 


The  map  of  this  district  shows  all  along  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
a  series  of  villages  below  and  above  Shigar.  In  reahty  there  is  one 
single  belt  of  cultivation  several  miles  long,  dotted  with  houses  which 
are  here  and  there  grouped  around  a  mosque.  The  only  group  of  any 
size  is  the  village  of  Shigar.  The  path  is  all  shaded  with  trees,  and  runs 
between  rice  plantations  and  fields  of  various  crops.  Between  these 
and  along  the  way  run  ditches  and  irrigation  canals  full  of  yellow  water, 
so  loaded  with  deposit  that,  in  order  to  make  it  drinkable,  it  must  first 


SAND-DUNES   OF   THE   SniGAR-IS'DFS    DELTA. 


be  gathered  into  cisterns  to  deposit  its  sediment.  The  Workmans 
attributed  to  this  wealth  of  sediment  the  extreme  fertility  of  the  soil, 
which  permits  the  Baltis  to  gather  abundant  harvests  on  the  same  land 
year  in  and  year  out  without  rotation  of  crops.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  they  manure  their  fields  abundantly  (Moorcroft,  Godwin 
Austen). 

About  two  miles  below  Shigar  the  Duke  was  met  by  the  llajah  with  the 
usual  cortege  and  an  orchestra,  neither  less  important  nor  less  noisy  than 
that  of  Skardu.  They  all  escorted  us  to  the  polo  ground,  said  to  be 
the  largest  in  Baltistan,  around  which  grow  trees  of  exceptional  size. 
A  walnut,  a  poplar  (whose  ancient  trunk  is  hollowed  into  a  huge 
cavity)  and  an  immense  plane  remind  us  of  the  giants  we  had  admired 
in  Kashmir,  having,  like  them,  all  the  grace  of  trees  w^hich  have  been 
left  to  grow  naturally  and  never  mutilated  by  pruning.      Near  the  polo 

(9221)  ,  4 


186 


C'liapter  IX. 


ground,  in  the  shade  of  the  chenars,  stands  a  large  mosque  with  lic  lily 
carved  windows  and  doors.  Inside,  the  columns  which  support  the 
roof  are  arranged  round  a  central  square,  from  the  ceiling  of  which 
depends  a  hanging  lamp.  The  arrangement  is  similar  to  that  in  the 
Srinagar  mosques,  and  according  to  Conway  is  characteristic  of  the 
Shigar  valley,  whereas  in  the  Indus  the  centre  of  the  mosque  is  usually 
occupied  by  an  ornamental  column. 


THE    I'OLO    GROIND   AT    SHIGAR.      KOSER   OUNliE    IN    THE    DISTANCE. 

Of  all  the  villages  through  which  we  had  passed,  Shigar  gave  us  the 
impression  of  the  greatest  prosperity.  The  increase  in  well-being  dei-ived 
from  the  wide  extent  of  the  irrigated  fields  showed  itself  in  the  cleaner 
clothing  of  the  people  and  in  the  houses.  Some  of  these  were  built 
of  sun-baked  bricks,  with  verandah  and  roof  terraces  protected 
by  a  light  awning  of  wood.  Here  and  there  in  little  open  places  between 
the  houses  great  slabs  of  stone  are  set  up  against  the  wall  and  carved 
in  rough  bas-relief  into  concentric  circles,  which  seem  to  be  targets  for 
archery. 

The  people  look  happy,  and  when  the  grain  is  sown  they  seem  to 
have  nothing  to  do  but  lie  in  the  pleasant  shade  and  wait  for  the  crops. 
Nevertheless,  they  must  have  hard  and  continuous  work  regulating  the 


From  Skardu  to  Askoley.  137 

irrigation  water,  l)uildiiig  and  keeping  up  tlie  canals,  preparing  the 
terraced  fields  (which  often  need  strong  retaining  walls),  removing 
stones  and  bringing  large  quantities  of  earth.  At  all  events,  they 
celebrated  our  arrival  by  a  cessation  of  all  work,  and  the  whole  popula- 
tion had  a  holiday  to  observe  with  intense  interest  every  visible  detail 
of  our  life.  They  kept,  however,  at  a  respectful  distance,  not  so  much 
out  of  fear  of  the  slender  rods  of  the  chuprassis,  which  could  hardly 
inflict  much  pain  through  heavy  woollen  clothing,  as  owing  to  a  natural 
sense  of  modesty  and  respect. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  gifts  of  flowers,  fruit  and  bread,  they  offered 
numerous  elaborate  cakes,  so  adorned  with  white  sugar  that  they  would 
have  done  honour  to  any  confectioner.  We  were  now  beginning  to  get 
accustomed  to  the  native  tea,  which  was  frequently  flavoured  with 
rosewater,  and  always  cleared  with  a  salt  which  precipitates  the  tannin 
and  colouring  substances.  Among  other  things  they  brought  us  cups, 
tumblers  and  pipes  carved  in  soft  green  soapstone,  which  is  taken  from 
a  quarry  in  the  valley  behind  Shigar. 

Among  those  who  came  to  pay  their  respects  to  the  Duke  we 
recognized  a  man  who  had  joined  our  escort  at  Tolti,  whom  we  had 
confounded  with  the  Lambardars  and  chuprassis,  but  who  now  turned 
out  to  be  the  Wazir  of  Shigar.  He  had  accompanied  the  Eckenstein- 
Pfannl-Guillarmod  ex])edition  on  the  Baltoro  glacier,  and  when  he 
heard  of  our  coming  he  met  us,  wishing  to  join  the  Duke's  caravan. 
He  accompanied  tlie  expedition  throughout  the  campaign,  and  was 
always  quiet,  silent  and  discreet,  and  of  great  use  owing  to  his  power 
over  the  coolies. 

A  young  English  officer  back  from  shooting  ibex  and  markhor 
encamped  near  us  and  showed  us  his  trophies.  The  afternoon  was  spent 
pleasantly  in  watching  a  lively  match  of  polo  and  in  listening  to  the 
orchestra,  which  played  for  dancing.  The  crowd  stood,  as  usual,  in  a 
semi-circle  behind  the  musicians,  and  here  and  there  from  the  rows  of 
spectators  peered  the  little  heads  of  ponies,  who  seemed  to  enjoy  the 
game  as  much  as  any  one.  We  agreed  with  Ujfalvy  and  Biddxdph  in 
finding  the  Aryan  type  {)urer  and  more  universal  here  than  in  the  Indus 
valley.^  Cunningham,  however,  considered  Mongol  characteristics 
especially  prominent  among  the  Baltis  of  Shigar.  The  women  seemed 
to  be  kept  less  carefully  secluded  here  than  in  the  Indus  valley.      One 

'  Si't'  tlio  illustrations  on  pp.  87,  !H1,  etc. 


138 


Chapter   IX. 


met  them  frequently  a})out  the  villages,  and  when  they  are  alone  they 
expose  their  faces  with  no  great  amount  of  backwardness.  They  often 
wore  violet-colom-ed  clothing,  and  the  faces  of  the  younger  ones  were 
regular  and  pleasing,  and  surmounted  by  luxuriant  black  hair. 

Throughout  the  Shigar  valley,  and  farther  up  in  the  Braldoh,  I 
observed  a  number  of  goitres,  frequently  accompanied  by  characteristic 
signs  of  cretinism,  both  among  the  people  and  our  own  foolies. 


POLO    AT   SHIUAB. 


The  wide  Shigar  valley,  with  its  level  bed  open  on  every  side,  makes 
a  marked  contrast  to  the  gloomy  valley  of  the  Indus,  so  deeply  imprisoned 
between  its  high  and  precipitous  walls.  It  begins  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Basha  and  Braldoh  valleys,  whose  rivers  flow  together  and  form  the 
Shigar.  Both  valleys  are  narrow  and  trough-shaped,  with  features 
common  to  the  other  valleys  of  the  region.  The  Basha  valley  continues 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  Shigar  toward  the  north-west,  and  gathers 
the  waters  of  the  numerous  glaciers  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
western  Karakoram,  which  has  been  the  scene  of  the  frequent  expedi- 
tions of  the  Workmans.  The  Braldoh  valley  turns  eastward  and  rises 
to  the  Biafo  and  Baltoro  glaciers. 

Between  its  source  and  the  point  where  it  alters  its  course  to  wind 
round  the  spur  which  divides  it  at  the  lower  end  from  the  Indus,  the 


Range  to  the  left  of  the  Shigar  Valley  (from  near  Sildi) 


^ 


From  Skardu  to  Askolev. 


139 


Shigar  valley  runs  from  north-west  to  south-east  for  about  25  niiles, 
maintaining  a  width  of  about  three  miles  and  \vith  a  drop  of  some  350 
feet.^  The  sand  has  obhterated  nearly  every  trace  of  glacial  action. 
Only  in  sheltered  corners  and  on  the  lee  side  of  lateral  spurs  are  to  be 
found  moraine  remnants,  -  which  bear  witness  to  the  past  occupation  of 
the  valley  up  to  a  great  height  by  a  gigantic  glacier,  which  included  the 


CHADf   ON    THE    RICHT   OF   THE   SHIGAR   VALLEY.   WITH   B". 


volumes  of  the  Chogo  Lungma,  the  Biafo,  the  Punmah  and  the  Baltoro, 
all  of  which  glaciers  even  now,  confined  as  they  are  to  their  own  valleys, 
inspire  amazement  by  their  vast  dimensions. 

Of  the  two  mountain  ranges  which  stand  right  and  left  of  the  Shigar 
valley,  the   greater  and  more  important  is  beyond  doubt  that  to   the 

'  The  official  altitude  of  Skardu  is  7,503  feet.  Tlie  height  of  the  village  of  Shigar,  calculated 
on  the  basis  of  the  Duke's  observations,  is  7,517  feet,  and  that  of  Dusso,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Braldoh  valley,  7,874  feet. 

'  According  to  tk)DWDf  Austen  {Jour.  Boy.  Geog.  Soc.  34,  1864,  p.  19)  the  village  of  Shigar 
is  itself  built  upon  a  thick  deposit  of  earth  and  angjilar,  not  stratified,  detritus  of  morenic  origin. 


140 


Clia})tc'r  IX. 


east,  wliicli  separates  it  from  the  Braldoh  valley  and  contains  Mango 
Gusor  (20,633  feet)  and  Koser  Gunge  (21,000  feet)^.  The  valleys  of  this 
range  are,  however,  so  deep  and  so  long  that  only  the  peak  of  Koser 
Gunge  is  visible  from  Shigar,  standing  at  the  north  end  of  the  chain  and 
covered  with  great  glaciers.  Farther  north  the  Shigar  valley  appears 
to  be  closed  by  a  group  of  snowy  mountains,  the  Ganchen,  21,204  feet 


THE    SKORO    LUMBA,    ON   THE    LEFT   OF   THE    SIIICAR    VALLEY. 

high,  which  it  seems  the  Shigar  people  call  Simbilla.  The  western  side 
of  the  valley  is  formed  by  a  steep  range,  which  is  all  in  sight  from  top 
to  bottom.  It  is  furrowed  by  ravines  and  precipitous  gorges,  full  of  small 
hanging  glaciers,  and  dominated  by  a  fine  snow  peak  in  the  centre,  the 
B^^  of  our  maps. 

The  path  ascends  the  Shigar  valley  on  the  left  or  western  side. 
From  Mango  Gusor  runs  down  into  the  Shigar  valley  the  first  side 
valley,  the  Baiimaharel,  which  comes  out  just   behind   Shigar,  with  a 


'  According  to  the  Workmans,  who  ascended  it  in  1899. 


From  Ska  1(1  u  to  Askoley. 


141 


mouth  like  a  gate,  only  a  few  yards  wide,  between  cliffs  of  gneiss. 
Immediately  beyond  this  opening  the  valley  grows  wider,  and  is  cut 
across  by  an  ancient  moraine.  Five  miles  above  Shigar  the  second 
great  tributary  valley,  the  Skoro  Lumba,  opens  out.^  This  valley 
leads  up  to  a  pass  of  the  chain,  the  Skoro  La,  16,716  feet  high,  which 
is  the  direct  route  to  Askoley.  The  journey  from  Shigar  to  Askoley 
is  done  in  three  stages,  but  at  this  season  the  pass  was  still  blocked  with 


MEETIXG  OF  THE  BASHA  AND  THE  BRAI.DOH,  AXD  HEAD  OF  THE  SHIGAR  VALLEY. 

snow,  and  we  had  to  go  all  the  way  around  the  chain  and  ascend  first 
the  Shigar  valley  up  to  its  bifurcation,  and  then  the  Braldoh  valley 
from  its  mouth  to  Askole}',  more  than  twice  the  distance  but  all  along 
the  valley  beds. 

The  Shigar  valley  is  usually  taken  in  three  stages,  stopping  at  the 
villages  of  Alchori  and  Yuno  ;  but  we  did  tlio  29  oi'  30  miles  in  two 
days.  After  Shigar,  for  about  six  miles,  we  went  along  a  shady  road, 
unbroken  even  by  the  wide  stony  beds  of  the  torrents  which  flow  down 
from  the  mountains  on  our  right.  Little  by  little,  however,  increasing 
reaches  of  desert  intervene  between  the  villages,  and  the  cultivated  land 
again  takes  the  form  of  oases. 

•  Lvmbri.  or  hmm^ia.  moans  valley. 


142 


Chapter  IX. 


The  Shigar  river,  divided  into  a  network  of  rivulets,  fills  the  whole 
of  the  flat  valley  bottom,  so  that  the  path  is  forced  to  skirt  the  foot  of 
the  range,  whose  high  peaks  are  hidden  by  projecting  spurs.  As  we 
approach  the  peak  of  Koser  Gunge  it  too  disappears  with  its  glaciers, 
and  is  no  longer  visible  except  now  and  again  through  some  valley 
opening.  Torrents  flow  down  from  these  openings,  fortunately  sub- 
divided into  small  streams  quite  easy  to  cross  by  jumping  or  to  ford 
on   the   ponies.      We   stopped   for   the   night   at    Kushimul,  in    a    field 


THK    SHIKARI   ABDULLAII,    AND   THE   (HAN'T   VINE   OF    KUSHIMUL. 


enclosed  with  a  little  hedge,  under  a  cherry,  a  pear  and  an  apricot  tree 
and  an  old  mulberry,  the  last  festooned  with  a  gigantic  vine  whose 
trunk  had  grown  almost  as  great  as  its  support. 

The  second  half  of  our  route  took  us  round  by  the  projecting  spur 
of  Busper,  which  runs  northward  from  Koser  Gunge,  and  whose  ridge, 
running  down  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  Ganchen,  bounds  the 
opening  of  the  Braldoh  valley.  The  mountain  spurs  have  shoved  back 
the  path  to  the  sand  and  pebbles  of  the  valley  bottom,  save  for  an 
occasional  brief  space  where  the  river  flows  to  their  very  bases.  Between 
the  ends  of  these  spurs  we  crossed  considerable  reaches  of  sand,  which 
appear  to  be  a  few  hundred  yards  wide,  and  are  sometimes  as  much 
as  a  mile.     Several  tributary  streams  obliged  us  to  mount  our  ponies 


From    Skiirdu    to   Askolev. 


113 


so  as  to  ford  them.  The  water  grew  thicker  and  muddier,  as  if  to 
prepare  us  for  the  mud  streams  of  the  Brakloh  valley.  It  must  certainly 
ferry  down  immense  quantities  of  clay  yearly. 

We  now  began  to  turn  eastward  little  by  little  round  Koser  Gunge, 
and  hardly  noticed  that  the  mouth  of  the  Brakloh  valley  had  l)cen 
entered  until  we  found  ourselves  opposite  Dusso,  its  first  village,  standing 
on  the  other  bank.  Two  primitive  native  rafts,  known  as  zhals, 
composed  of  interwoven  branches  tied  by  cords  to  inflated  skins,  weie 


THE  GANCHEN  (iROUP  FROM  THE  MDl'TH  OF  THE  BRALDOH  VALLEY. 


waiting  for  us  on  the  bank.  Each  raft  was  piloted  by  two  men,  and 
driven  out  into  the  stream  with  long  poles  as  soon  as  we  had  taken 
our  places  on  the  boughs,  whose  interstices  were  so  large  that  we  felt 
as  if  we  were  sitting  in  the  water.  The  Brakloh  is  at  this  point  about 
100  feet  wide  and  very  swift.  As  the  current  caught  us  we  began  to 
whirl  round  and  round,  seeing  the  whole  of  the  panorama  about  us  five 
or  six  times  in  the  space  of  a  minute.  A  little  farther  downstream,  at 
a  narrow  point  of  the  river,  a  liglit  bridge  had  been  thrown  across  the 
stream,  made  of  two  tree  trunks  with  cro.ss-bars  and  branches  laid  over 
them ;  and  by  this  route  our  guides  and  coolies  reached  the  opposite 
bank.  Once  on  the  other  side,  we  went  up  as  far  as  the  trees  of  Dusso 
and  set  up  our  camp. 


144 


Chapter  IX. 


We  were  now  again  .shut  in  between  steep  mountain  walls,  and  coukl 
see  none  of  the  high  peaks  around  us.  Only  westward,  througli  the 
narrow  mouth  of  the  valley,  could  we  catch  sight  of  a  bit  of  tlie  chain 
to  the  right  of  the  Shigar  valley.  A  httle  farther  upstream  two  long 
spurs  of  the  Koser  Gunge  and  Ganchen  run  down  opposite  one  another, 
and  seem  quite  to  cut  ofi"  the  valley.  On  the  ridge  of  the  second,  just 
over  the  camp,  rises  the  strange  monolith  indicated  on  the  map  by  the 
name  of  Shamasir  Pir  Gombar.     According  to  the  local  legend,  as  given 


CROSSING   THE    BRAI.DOH   ON    A    ZHAK. 


by  Godwin  Austen,  it  is  inhabited  by  a  snow-white  bird  which  guards 
a  lump  of  pure  gold  placed  on  a  cushion  of  embroidered  velvet.  Any 
object  which  cannot  be  found  in  the  morning  is  supposed  to  have  been 
stolen  by  the  Pir.     Luckily  this  thievish  fowl  paid  no  attention  to  us. 

The  Tehsildar  of  Skardu  took  leave  of  the  Duke,  and  retired  to  his 
home,  carrying  our  mails  with  him.  The  ponies  had  been  left  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river,  and  henceforward  our  journey  was  all  on  foot. 


From  Skardu  to  Askoley, 


146 


The  Brakloh  valley  is  of  the  same  type  as  the  Indus,  only  its  smaller 
dimensions  make  it  seem  even  more  narrow,  and  its  walls  more  pre- 
cipitous. It  makes  sharper  turns,  too,  round  the  foot  of  the  spurs  which 
run  down  on  either  side  and  cross  each  other.  The  masses  of  detritus 
and  sedimentary  deposit  which  cling  to  the  precipices  up  to  a  consider- 
able height  are  extremely  insecure,  and  the  path  must,  without  doubt, 
be  frequently  destroyed  or  cut  off  by  landslides. 


THE  IXJWER  BRALDOn,  WITH  THE  CANCHEN  IN  THE  BACKGROUND. 


The  distance  up  the  valley  fiom  Dusso  to  Askoley,  the  highest 
village,  is  about  22  miles,  with  a  ]ise  of  2,140  feet — from  7,874  to 
10,013  feet.  But  the  path  is  several  miles  longer  than  the  distance  as 
the  crow  flies,  and  there  must  be  several  thousand  feet  of  up  and 
down  involved  in  crossing  the  numerous  lidges  which  lie  in  its  wav. 
The  first  and  one  of  the  very  steepest  is  the  long  spur  which  runs 
down  just  above  Dusso,  and  which  the  path  crosses  about  1. 000  feet 
above  the  river.  At  the  top  of  the  laborious  climb  we  halted  a  little 
to  take  breath,  and  to  gaze  upon  the  great  glaciers  of  Ganchen.  The 
coolies  made  a  little  fire  in  the  shelter  of  a  big  projecting  rock,  ;ind 

(9221)  K 


I4(j  Chapter  IX. 

prepared  their  usual  early  breakfast  by  crumbling  their  chupattis 
into  hot  water  with  a  little  salt.  Others  were  inhahng,  turn  and  turn 
about,  a  few  mouthfuls  of  smoke  from  the  pipes  which  they  construct 
in  the  clay  soil.  A  thin  stick  is  buried  in  the  earth  with  the  two  bent 
ends  projecting.  Around  one  end  they  mould  the  earth  into  a  funncl- 
shajjcd  pipe  bowl,  and  then  pull  out  the  stick,  leaving  a  little  tunnel 
under  the  earth  through  which  they  inhale  through  their  hands.  The 
tobacco,  which  is  extremely  evil-smelhng,  will  only  burn  when  kept  in 
contact  with  a  live  coal.  There  is  generally  some  coolie  in  the  caravan 
who  has  brought  his  primitive  narghile,  made  out  of  a  little  gourd  or 
hollow  bit  of  wood,  into  which  are  stuck  the  clay  pipe  bowl  and  stem, 
through  which  they  smoke  in  turn,  grasping  the  end  of  the  stem 
with  their  fist  and  inhahng  through  it.  This  is  also  their  ingenious 
method  of  smoking  cigarettes.  Notwithstanding  their  heavy  loads, 
they  reached  the  top  of  the  ridge  without  panting  or  signs  of 
fatigue.  Those  among  them  to  whose  lot  the  easier  loads  had  fallen 
carried  the  flour  and  provisions  of  their  more  heavily  burdened 
companions. 

Once  over  the  top  of  the  ridge,  the  path  skirts  down  along  the  barren 
slopes  till  it  reaches  a  narrow  ravine  cut  by  the  water  through  a  terrace 
of  detritus.  Down  this  we  descended  to  the  river,  whose  bank  we  then 
followed  around  the  base  of  high  perpendicular  cliffs  of  friable  con- 
glomerates, with  notched  upper  edges  which  represented  the  section 
of  the  terraces  they  support.  Southward  we  could  see  the  whole  of  the 
Koser  Gunge,  with  the  great  radiating  buttresses  which  run  down  from 
it ;  while  northward,  between  the  Ganchen  and  the  Mushun,  opens  the 
tributary  valley  of  Hoh  Lumba,  which,  with  the  glaciers  at  its  head,  was 
explored  by  the  A\'orkmans  in  1903.  A  httle  beyond  the  mouth  of 
this  valley  we  set  up  our  camp,  near  the  village  of  Gomboro.  Here  the 
apricots  were  still  in  blossom,  and  germination  barely  beginning.  The 
sown  fields  were  still  quite  bare. 

On  the  morning  of  May  13th  we  pursued  our  march  up  the  valley, 
everywhere  hemmed  in  between  steep  mountain  spm-s  coming  nearer 
and  nearer  to  one  another  and  forcing  the  river  into  a  winding  course. 
The  whole  valley  must  at  one  time  have  been  filled  with  inmiense  masses 
of  detritus  mingled  with,  clay  to  a  height  of  700  or  1,000  feet,  which 
were  then  cut  through  by  the  torrent,  forming  extremely  steep  if 
not  absolutely  vertical  sections.     Above  the  level  of  detritus  the  rock 


From  Skanlu   t<>  Askolev. 


147 


walls  are  in  even  more  active  process  of  disintegration  than  in  the  Indus 
valley.  Lydekker  has  obsei-ved  traces  of  glacial  action  as  high  as 
nearly  2,000  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  valley — ^vestiges  of  the  glacier 
which  was  once  formed  by  the  conjunction  of  the  Baltoro,  the  Punmah 
and  the  Biafo.  ^  The  path,  which  often  becomes  a  mere  track,  runs 
nearly  the  whole  way  along  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  and  is  exposed 
to  landsUdes,  which  must  be  common  even  when  the  weather  is  dry, 


KOSER   CirNGE,   AND    THE    ALLUVIAL  TERRACES   OF   THE    BKALDOH. 


so  frequent  are  the  projections  of  the  detritus  wall  and  so  ill  held 
in  place  by  the  loose  clay.  Wherever  the  walls  looked  unusually 
threatening  we  would  find  ourselves  unconsciously  quickening  oui' 
steps. 

We  frequently  came  across  places  where  the  path  had  disappeared 
under  streams  of  mud,  which  had  formed  into  fan-shape  and  then  dried 
and  hardened,  leaving  deep  indentations  on  the  brow  of  the  overhanging 
cliff.  At  other  points,  where  side  ravines  joined  the  main  valley,  we 
would  go  down  to  the  bottom  of  deep  torrential  beds  covered  with  a 

'  Lydekker,  The  Geology  of  Kashmir  and  Chamba  Territories.  Mem.  oj  the  Geol.  Surv.  of 
India,  22,  1883,  p.  18G. 

(9221)  K  2 


148 


Chapter  IX. 


thick  layer  of  hardened  mud,  through  the  middle  of  which  oozed  a  thin 
trickle  of  muddy  water.  These  were  plainly  the  beds  of  nmdstreams. 
We  found  none  in  active  progress,  but  these  traces  sufficed  to  show  the 
great  difficulty  they  must  present  when  they  flow  across  the  road  many 
yards  wide  and  deep,  carrying  down  with  them  heavy  masses  of  rock. 
They  are  a  characteristic  feature  of  all  upper  Baltistan,  where  they  are 
known  as  shwa.     Many  a  traveller  has  been  surprised  by  one  of  these 


THE    noH    LIMBA    AXD    THE    MUSHUM   CiROUP. 


movnig  masses — half  avalanche,  half  flood — and  has  run  grave  danger 
of  seeing  some  of  his  caravan  carried  off  by  them.  All  our  predecessors, 
Godwin  Austen,  Conway,  tlie  Workmans  and  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
Guillarmod  expedition,  witnessed  the  strange  phenomenon  on  u  smaller 
or  greater  scale.  ^ 

The  origin  of  the  streams   has  never  been   fully  explained.     Very 
difterent  forms  of  alluvial  action  have,  in  fact,  been  included  under  the 


'  In  addition  to  the  works  of  the  above-named  authors,  already  quoted,  see  Col.  H.  C.  B. 
Tanner.  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  the  Hinuilayas.  Proc.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  N.S.  13.  1891,  p.  4ri.3  ; 
and  the  article  of  Ch.  Rabot,  Glacial  Reservoirs  and  their  Outbursts.     Geog.  Jour.  2n,  1905,  p.  .54.'). 


From  Skardu  to  Askoley.  149 

name  shwa — as,  for  instance,  gi-eat  floods  caused  by  the  breaking  of  a 
temporary  dam  formed  by  a  landslide  or  by  the  protrusion  of  a  lateral 
glacier,  to  which  I  have  alluded  in  my  description  of  the  Indus  valley, 
or  the  sudden  inundations  produced  by  the  breaking  of  a  glacier 
reservoir.  These  are  uniisual  disasters,  and  purely  casual,  as  are  the 
causes  which  bring  them  about,  and  they  happen  with  the  violence  of 
the  true  cataclysm.  They  have  certainly  nothing  in  common  with  the 
mudstreams  which  may  be  seen  every  year  towards  the  end  of  ApriP 
oozing  down  the  tributary  ravines  of  the  high  valleys.  One  strange 
characteristic  which  has  been  several  times  observed  in  them  is  their 
intermittent  nature.  A  volume  of  half-liquid  mud  rolls  down  like  a 
wave,  mingled  with  big  stones  and  pieces  of  rock  of  all  sizes.  Then 
there  will  be  an  interval,  long  or  short,  of  which  the  traveller  takes 
advantage  to  cross  the  bed  with  all  speed.  Then  comes  another  great 
gush  and  another  interval,  and  so  on.  The  mud  gradually  grows  less 
thick,  and  ends  by  being  simply  muddy  water. 

The  volume  of  matter  thus  brought  to  the  bottom  of  the  valleys 
must  be  enormous,  a  fact  which  suggested  to  Conway  the  somewhat 
hazardous  hypothesis  that  to  these  mud  avalanches  may  be  due  the 
filling  up  of  the  valleys  with  detritus  to  the  depth  of  hundreds  of  yards, 
or  even  in  some  places  absolutely  up  to  the  crests,  so  as  to  form  great 
table-lands  such  as  those  of  Tibet  and  Pamir.  -  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  mud  streams  come  from  the  huge  banks  of  clay  which  hang  upon  the 
walls  of  the  valleys.  These  are  little  by  little  saturated  with  water 
from  the  spring  melting  of  the  snows,  until  they  reach  such  a  point  of 
semi-fluidity  as  to  sUde  upon  the  steep  slopes  and  finally  descend  by 
their  natural  paths,  the  gullies  and  ravines.  Temporary  obstructions 
caused  by  some  great  boulder  and  by  the  viscosity  of  the  mass  itself 
explain  the  intermittency  and  oscillation  of  the  flow,  which  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  lava  streams  on  the  slope  of  a  volcano  during  eruption. 
As  I  have  said,  we  did  not  come  across  any  active  mud  streams.  The 
mud  in  the  beds  was  dry  and  hard,  and  looked  as  though  it  had  been 
long  sohdified,  whether  through  an  unusual  delay  in  the  melting  of  the 
snows  in  this  particular  year  or  for  some  other  reason. 

'  According  to  Conway  the  shwa  arc  active  in  thi-  hot  days  of  June  and  thi-  early  part  of 
July. 

'  The  hypothesis  of  Conway  ainonfj  other  thinjjs  fails  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  gigantic 
clay  deposits  necessary  to  feed  such  torrents  of  mud. 

(9221)  K  .1 


150 


Chai)tcr  IX. 


We  observed  at  frequent  intervals,  especially  along  the  banks  of 
streams,  reaches  of  sand  covered  with  a  white  efflorescence  similar  to 
that  I  have  described  in  the  Indus  and  Shigar  valleys.  The  oases 
were  few  and  lean.  The  region  is  poor,  like  the  upper  Dras  valley. 
Outside  of  the  oases  the  sole  vegetation  consists  of  a  few  thorny  thickets 
of  roses  and  barberries,  clumps  of  wormwood  with  a  scent  between 
thyme  and  camphor,  wild  currant  bushes  and  a  few  gnarled  junipers. 
Insects  and  lizards  were  still  in  their  winter  sleep.  We  were  nearly 
10,000  feet  up,  and  spring  had  hardly  begun. 


TEMPORARY  BRIDGE  OVER  THE  BRALDOH  BELOW  CHOXGO. 

Presently  our  path  was  cut  by  a  spur  which  ran  down  into  the  river, 
and  we  were  forced  to  cross  to  the  left  bank.  A  temporary  bridge  of 
beams  supported  on  big  rocks  projecting  out  of  the  torrent  saved  us 
from  crossing  on  the  rope  bridge,  which  was  hanging  loose  and  in  a  very 
dilapidated  condition.  A  little  over  half  a  mile  farther  on  we  returned 
to  the  right  bank  of  the  Braldoh  over  a  sohd  rope  bridge,  well  kept  up. 
But  here,  too,  the  coolies  hastily  set  uj)  a  little  bridge  in  sections  across 
the  river,  greatly  facilitating  the  crossing  of  our  large  party.  We  went 
up  the  bank  as  far  as  a  wide  terrace  upon  which  stands  the  little  village 
of  Chongo,  where  we  encamped.^ 

•  Caravans  usually  make  their  stage  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Braldoh,  between  the  two 
bridges,  in  the  oasis  of  Pakora.  There  is  a  mistake  in  the  itinerary  map  which  puts  Chongo  in 
the  place  of  Pakora.     Chongo  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Braldoh  and  a  little  farther  upstream. 


From  Skardii  to  Askolev. 


151 


The  valley  now  seemed  to  open  out,  but  heavy  mists  rested  upon  the 
mountains,  and  we  scarcely  caught  brief  glimpses  of  Mango  Gusor,  an 
extraordinary  rocky  tooth  which  falls  sheer  to  the  valley,  forming  a 
huge  smooth  black  wall  cut  across  by  a  few  long  straight  white  lines 
marking  crevices  and  chimneys  filled  with  snow.  The  day  was  windy 
and  cold. 


ROl'E    BRIDCE    BETWEEX    I'AKORA    AND    CHOXtiO. 


A  little  below  the  village  are  three  cemeteries,  standing  one  above 
anothei'  along  the  slope,  so  large  as  to  seem  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the 
number  of  the  living,  as  if  they  had  served  for  a  much  larger  village 
than  the  Chongo  of  to-day.  Children's  graves  are  in  the  great  majority 
in  all  three.  In  fact,  the  lowest  of  them,  through  which  runs  the  valley 
path,  is  entirely  made  up  of  the  tombs  of  infants.  We  had  already 
noticed  burying  places  in  the  Shigar  valley,  entirely  filled  with  these 
tiny  graves,  which  speak  volumes  of  the  cruel  process  of  selection 
inflicted  upon  this  people  by  the  hard  climate,  their  poverty  and  the 
unhygienic  conditions  of  their  life  from  infancy  upwards. 

(9221)  K  4 


152 


Chapter  TX. 


In  the  Indus  and  Shigar  valleys  the  tombs,  large  and  small,  con- 
sisted of  slabs  of  stone  planted  in  the  ground  or  of  a  low  wall  enclosing  a 
rectangular  plot.^  They  showed  no  sign  of  being  regarded  with  anv 
special  reverence- — indeed,  so  little  is  this  the  case  that  we  would  find 
here  and  there  one  of  the  older  and  larger  graves  turned  into  a  diminu- 
tive kitchen  garden.  These  tombs  were  scattered  haphazard  over  any 
open  space,  mostly  under  the  trees,  and  not  within  any  enclosure. 
The  tombs  at  Chongo  are  quite  different.     The  low  wall  is  replaced 


CHILDREN  S   CRAVES    AT   CHONOO. 


by  a  rectangular  fence  of  little  wooden  beams  fitted  into  four  square 
corner  posts,  whose  tops  are  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  die  or  a  diamond. 
The  most  interesting  of  the  three  cemeteries  is  the  highest.  It  is  now 
plainly  abandoned,  the  wall  which  once  enclosed  it  partly  in  ruins,  and 
of  the  door  only  the  wooden  frame  is  left.  Within  this  enclosure  are 
a  dozen  tombs  surrounded  by  the  small  wooden  railing  just  described 
and  a  few  others,  so  much  larger  as  to  seem  monumental  by  comparison, 
these  latter  consisting  of  clay  brick  walls  strengthened  at  the  corners 


•  See  illustration  of  the  Parkutta  cemetery,  p.  120. 

*  We  occasionally  met  with  an  isolated  tomb  adorned  with  one  or  tv\-o  upright  poles  hung 
about  with  rags  ;  the  grave  of  some  saint,  but  held  in  far  less  veneration  than  similar  burying 
places  in  Central  Asia. 


Chongo 


ognojl'J 


4 


From  Skardu  to  Askoley, 


153 


by  beams  incorporated  in  the  masonry.  The  strange  thing  is  that 
constructions  so  elaborate  are  to  be  found  in  the  Indus  valley  only  in 
the  most  prosperous  villages,  whereas  the  habitations  of  Chongo  are 
rudely  built  of  rough  stones  and  mud.  Upon  the  corners  of  these 
walled  enclosures  are  placed  four  or  more  big  round  stones.  The  ground 
within  had  in  several  cases  broken  through,  showing  that  under  the 
enclosure  the  earth  was  hollowed  out  into  a  chamber  with  a  roof  made 
of  beams  and  beaten  earth.  There  was  no  trace  of  funeral  objects  or 
any  fragments  of  skeletons. 


^    .  .. 


'    /?  A     '  Jt 


A   CEMETERY    AT   CHONGO. 


The  stage  from  Chongo  to  Askoley  is  only  about  six  miles,  and  we 
had  time  to  stop  and  enjoy  a  warm  bath  in  a  hot  spring  by  the  way. 
We  came  across  it  a  little  above  the  small  torrent  which  supplies  the 
Chongo  oasis,  on  the  west  side  and  nearly  at  the  top  of  a  conical  hillock 
some  150  or  200  feet  high,  with  a  base  perhaps  some  650  feet  in 
diameter.  The  ground  sounded  hollow  to  the  tread  or  the  blow  of  a 
stick,  and  was  quite  covered^ — possibly  entirely  composed — of  saline 
encrustations,  white  where  new,  yellowish  where  old.  The  conical 
formation  is  incomplete,  because  it  is  cut  off  on  one  side  by  the  slope 
of  the  mountain.  At  the  top  it  is  split  by  a  long,  deep  fissure,  about 
18  inches  wide,  through  which  apparently  no  gas  issues. 


164 


Chapter  IX. 


The  basin  is  perfectly  round,  from  50  to  60  feet  in  diameter  and 
about  three  feet  deep  in  the  middle — a  veritable  little  pond,  full  of  the 
most  limpid  water  having  a  slight  odour  of  sulphurous  anhydride,  and 
an  exquisite  emerald  hue  due  to  the  algse  which  cover  the  bottom. 
The  water  bubbles  up  through  five  or  six  openings  in  two  groups,  one 
near  the  edge  of  the  fountain,  the  other  in  the  centre.  It  overflows  the 
furrowed  lip  of  the  basin,  which  is  formed  by  yellowish-white  saline 


THE    noT   SPRING. 


conglomerates.  This  formation  likewise  covers  the  whole  of  one  side 
of  the  cone  with  regular  layers.  The  temperature  of  the  water,  taken 
at  the  biggest  opening  near  the  edge,  was  120°  F.  (thermometer  Hicks, 
N.  449,310).^  All  round  this  opening  was  a  flourishing  growth  of  long 
weeds.  Among  them  or  scattered  over  the  bottom  of  the  basin  were 
bundles  of  filaments  encrusted  with  calcite.  Guillarmod  made  the 
interesting  discovery  that  these  bundles  are  composed  of  hairs,  but  it 
seems  improbable  that  they  could  accumulate  in  such  large  quantities 

'  In  1902,  according  to  (iuillaiinoil,  the  temperature  was  100-7^  F.      Godwin  Austen  found 
in  the  various  hot  springs  of  this  region  temperatures  of  104-5°,  137°,  122°,  117°  and  110°  F. 


From  Skiinlu  to  Askolcv, 


155 


merely  from  the  occasional  falling  of  hair  of  the  natives  when  bathing 
there.  ^ 

From  the  opposite  or  east  side  of  the  fountain  the  cone  slopes  down 
in  a  series  of  small  terraces,  where  a  stratification  is  occasionally  visible. 
Many  of  these  terraces  are  fringed  with  a  close  series  of  small  stalactites, 
which  makes  them  look  hke  |)etrified  cascades.^ 


THE   STALACTITES   OF   THE    HOT   SPRING. 

After  a  good  half-hour's  bath  we  started  on  with  a  lighter  step,  and 
after  crossing  two  more  torrents  reached  Askoley  before  nine  o'clock. 
Near  the  village  is  an  open  space  divided  into  little  fields  and  shaded  by 
willows  and  poplars.  The  Duke  had  the  camp  set  up  in  one  of  these 
fields,  and  the  guides'  tents  and  kitchen  in  another. 

^  Professor  R.  Pirotta  kindly  examined  for  me  the  specimens  collected  at  this  fountain.  He 
found  tlu'in  to  be  composed  of  a  thick  tangle  of  colonies  of  schizophytes  and  green  filamentous 
weeds,  encrusted  with  calcareous  deposit  and  mixed  with  crystals  of  calcite  and  higher  vegetable 
forms  wliieh  must  have  come  into  the  fountain  from  outside.  Other  sj)eciniens  proved  actually 
to  consist  of  bundles  of  human  hair,  so  tliiekly  eiicru.stcd  with  calcareous  .salts  as  to  resemble 
vegetable  tangles  not  unlike  the  bundles  of  rnnirea-  found  in  thermal  springs.  All  the  samples  of 
encrustations  collected  from  around  the  fountain  were  proved  by  analysis  to  be  simple  specimens 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  or  calcite  (Novarese). 

'  Beside  this  spring  (lodwin  .Austen  mentions  three  others  lower  down  mar  the  bank  of  the 
Braldoh.  These  were  still  there  in  1902,  when  the  Eckenstein-l'fannl(;uillarmod  expetlition 
saw  them  ;  but  we  found  no  trace  of  them,  and  the  natives  told  us  tliat  the  bank  out  of  which 
they  sprang  had  been  carried  away  l>y  the  river. 


156 


Cha|)tt'r  IX. 


We  had  now  icachod  the  last  inhabited  spot  on  thi.s  side  of  the 
Kajakoram.  Twenty-two  days'  march  had  brought  us  295  miles  with 
all  oui-  luggage,  without  any  interruption  and  without  a  single  mishap. 
Notwithstanding  the  extremely  complicated  nature  of  the  equipment 
and  the  thousands  of  hands  it  had  passed  through,  we  had  not  only 
not  lost  a  single  piece  out  of  over  200  packages,  but  we  had  not  even 
lost  a  single  small  article.     What   better  proof  could  there  be  of  the 


THE   CARAVAN    AT   ASKOLEY. 


honesty  of  the  Baltis  ?  We  were  all  in  splendid  condition,  and  our 
well-divided  stages  had  brought  us  almost  imperceptibly  up  to  a  pitch 
of  training  for  the  far  greater  demands  which  were  now  to  be  made 
upon  our  strength. 

Askoley  stands  10,013  feet  above  the  sea  level,  at  the  very  gate  of 
the  high  mountains.^  We  had  now  come  up  out  of  the  stuffy  heat 
of  the  valleys.  A  little  farther  on  all  trace  of  path  ceases  and  the  great 
frozen  basins  of  the   Karakoram  begin.     We  had  now  to  change  our 


'  .Sir  iLvRTix  Coxway  gives  Askoley  a  height  of  10,360  feet,  hut  this  must  he  a  misprint , 
for  he  gives  the  same  height  to  Korophon,  farther  up,  beyond  the  Biafo  glacier  (op.  cit.  pp.  412 
and  419).  According  to  the  Workmans  the  fort  of  Askoley  (half  a  mile  to  the  east  of  the 
village)  is  10,300  feet. 


From  Skanlu  to  Askoley.  157 

personal  equipment,  put  aside  whatever  we  no  longer  needed  and  make 
a  thorough  and  careful  selection  of  what  it  would  pay  to  take  with  us. 
Furthermore,  from  this  point  on  we  should  have  to  provide  for  our  coolies. 
The  grasping  Kashmiri  and  Sikh  merchants  of  Skardu  had  made  us 
beheve  that  Askoley  would  be  unable  to  furnish  us  sufficient  flour,  so 
we  had  bought  it  all  at  Skardu  and  sent  it  on  to  Askoley  before  us. 

The  Duke  organized  an  advance  caravan  that  afternoon.  Ninety- 
three  coolies  carried  as  many  maunds  (80  lbs.)  of  flour  sewn  in  skins. 
Thirty-five  more  were  loaded  with  cases  of  provisions  for  the  high 
regions,  and  ten  carried  the  flour  which  this  advance  party  would  need 
on  the  way.  A  huge  crowd  of  natives  from  Askoley  and  the  lower 
villages  assembled,  hoping  to  be  enlisted.  They  were  of  all  ages  and 
appearances,  from  mere  boys  to  feeble  old  men,  and  even  some  who 
were  crippled.  For  the  present  we  engaged  them  as  they  came.  Later 
on  we  would  make  a  careful  choice  of  the  strongest  and  fittest  to  take 
with  us  to  the  high  camps. 

Askoley  is  a  poor  village  indeed,  and  certainly  one  of  the  dirtiest 
in  all  BaltLstan.  Numbers  of  the  houses  are  empty  and  in  ruins,  as  if 
some  of  the  population  had  abandoned  the  country.  "We  were  surprised 
to  find  stray  dogs  about,  a  rare  sight  in  a  Balti  village.  They  were 
as  large  as  wolves  and  looked  like  them,  yellow  and  grey  in  colour.  Thev 
wandered  hungrily  around  the  camp,  only  kept  off  by  the  missiles  and 
threats  of  the  angry  servants.  Possibly  they  are  descendants  of  the 
dogs  which  Godwin  Austen  mentions  as  having  been  kept  by  the  people 
of  Askoley  for  hunting  and  trained  to  drive  the  ibex  toward  the 
huntsman.  That  was  in  1861.  Nowadays  the  natives  are  no  longer 
permitted  to  have  firearms. 

There  are  only  a  few  fruit  trees,  but  plenty  of  willows  and  poplars. 
The  cultivated  fields  are  very  extensive,  sloping  down  from  the  \'illage 
to  the  river,  while  at  a  Httle  distance  above  the  river  the  mountain 
side  is  covered  with  very  fair  pasture.  The  place  is  Uable  to  earthquake. 
In  1902  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition  felt  two  per- 
ceptible shocks  on  May  30th  and  31st. 

Few  conmninities  are  so  cut  off  from  the  world  as  this  httle  popula- 
tion of  Askoley.  Before  them  lies  an  infinite  extent  of  glaciers,  shut 
in  by  the  most  gigantic  mountain  ramparts  in  the  whole  world  ;  behhid 
them  a  desert  valley,  which  for  eight  months  in  the  year  is  absolutelv 
blocked  by  the  snows,  the  avalanches  and  the  Arctic  temperature.     The 


158 


CluiptcT     1\. 


two  small  panoramas  here  leproduced  show  far  better  than  words  the 
appearance  of  the  country  round  Askoley.  They  display  the  utter 
barrenness  of  the  slopes,  the  cliffs  of  detritus  reaching  half  way  up  the 
mountain  walls,  the  cones  formed  by  the  falls  of    disintegrating  rock, 

the  deep  gorges  hollowed  out  by 
tlie  rivers  and  torrents  in  the  thick 
alluvial  deposits,  and  the  little  oases 
of  cultivation  around  the  last  three 
villages  at  the  mouth  of  the 
tributary  ravines  of  the  valley. 
They  include,  too,  the  fine  chain  of 
Mango  Gusor,  opposite  Askoley, 
with  the  valley  of  the  Skoro  La, 
opening  on  the  very  face  of  the 
mountain  wall  at  least  1,000  feet 
above  the  Braldoh  ;  and  to  the 
west  of  it  a  great  snowy  peak, 
whose  glaciers  come  to  a  sudden 
end  at  the  top  of  steep  couloirs, 
and  every  now  and  then  fill  the 
vallev     with     the     roar    of     their 


MAXIH)    (irSOK    FROM    ASKOT.KV. 


avalanches. 


In  spite  of  these  formidable  natural  protections,  Askoley  was  for 
a  long  time  wasted  by  raids  of  robbers  from  Hunza  and  Nagar.  These 
were  only  brought  to  an  end  with  the  concjuest  of  the  latter  territories 
by  an  EngUsh  mihtary  expedition  and  their  annexation  to  the  kingdom 
of  Kashmir.  Incredible  as  it  may  seem,  these  marauding  bands  used 
to  traverse  the  whole  length  of  the  Hispar  glacier,  cross  the  col  and 
descend  the  Biafo,  more  than  65  miles  of  ice,  for  the  purpose  of  raiding 
Askoley.  The  last  raid  was  in  1840.  A  band  of  700  or  800  men,  led 
by  the  Wazir  Hollo,  reached  Askoley  in  the  autumn,  and  seems  to  have 
departed  with  rich  booty,  obtained  either  by  violence — as  Godwin 
Austen  was  told  in  1861 — or  according  to  Conway  in  the  form  of  a  ransom 
paid  by  the  village.  But  the  season  was  too  far  advanced,  and  the 
whole  baud  is  supposed  to  have  been  lost  among  the  glaciers  and  snow- 
storms on  the  way  back,  only  the  leader  escaping  with  his  hfe.^     I  will 


'  Guiu.AHMOD  (op.  cit.  p.  146)  gives  a  wholly  different  version  of  this  raid,  confusing  the 
Nagar  tribes  with  the  Tibetans,  the  Hispar  with  the  Mustagh  pass,  etc. 


Mango  Gasor 


Skoro-La 


Range  ou  the  left  hand  side  of  the  Braldoh  Valk7  (from  a  height  to  the  North  of  Askoley,  about   13.000  ft.) 


Mango  Gusor 


Askoley 


The  Braldoh  valley  above  Askoley 


o 


r^ 


From  Skardu  to  Askoley 


159 


speak  later  on  of  two  other  routes — across  the  Puiimah  glacier  and 
across  the  Baltoro — which  at  one  time  connected  Askoley  with  the 
country  north  of  the  Karakoram,  Chinese  Turkestan. 

We  had  a  great  deal  of  work  to  get  through,  which  kept  us  at 
Askoley  for  the  whole  of  the  day  following  our  arrival.  Sella,  who 
had  worked  late  into  the  previous  night  to  set  the  photographic 
equipment  in  order,  took  advantage  of  the  halt  to  climb  with  his  gun 
and  camera  on  to  the  rock  wall  which  overhangs  Askoley.     He  was 


GETTING    SUPPLIES   AT   ASKOLEY. 


rewarded  by  a  panorama  of  the  Mango  Gusor  range,  a  collection  of 
specimens  of  garnets  and  a  fine  ram  chikor  (tetraogcdlus  Tibetanus),  the 
giant  partridge  of  the  Himalaya.  According  to  Thomson  the  people 
of  Askoley  hunt  these  partridges  by  forming  a  ring  around  them  in 
great  numbers,  and  beating  them  from  side  to  side  with  shouts  and  sticks 
until  they  are  so  exhausted  that  they  can  be  caught  with  the  hand. 
In  spite  of  the  remaikable  barreimess  of  the  slopes,  big  herils  of  ibex 
and  markhor,  and  innumerable  nuirmots,  partridges  and  otlier  wild 
creatures,  manage  to  live  on  the  scanty  grass  growing  on  the  high  slopes 
in  corners  and  crevices  known  to  them  only. 


itju  Chapter  TX. 

We  had  a  little  flock  of  sheep  and  goats  put  together  to  keep  us 
supplied  with  niilk  and  meat.  Tliey  were  to  be  kept  on  one  of  the 
southern  spurs  of  the  Baltoro  glacier,  where  there  would  be  pasturage 
throughout  the  summer  months.  They  were  at  once  sent  ahead  with 
their  shepherds.  We  carried  with  us  also  a  fair  mmiber  of  fowls  and 
several  dozen  eggs.  In  this  way  we  managed  to  keep  supplied  with 
fresh  provisions  even  on  the  high  glaciers,  and  these,  taken  alternately 
with  tinned  food,  rendered  our  nourishment  more  palatable  and  less 
monotonous.  Our  Kashmiri  servants  were  not  to  accompany  us  any 
farther,  but  to  await  our  return  at  Askoley. 

During  the  two  days  we  spent  at  Askoley  the  weather  was  change- 
able, sometimes  cloudy  with  heavy  and  stagnant  atmosphere,  sometimes 
gusty  with  a  little  sleet.  The  evenings  were  calm  and  clear.  The 
temperature  went  down  to  28°  F.  in  the  night. 

The  Lambardar  of  Askoley,  who,  like  his  people,  looked  extremely 
wretched,  took  charge  of  and  placed  in  a  tolerably  dry  and  sheltered 
room  the  part  of  the  equipment  which  we  had  decided  to  leave  here 
and  the  cases  of  provision  for  the  return  journey  to  Skardu.  We  hoped 
we  should  not  meet  with  the  ill-luck  of  the  Guillarmod  expedition, 
which  was  prevented  from  returning  to  Askoley  by  an  outbreak  of 
cholera. 


CHAPTER  X. 


FROM    ASKOLEY    TO    RDOKASS. 
THE     BIAFO    AND     BALTORO    GLACIERS. 


The  Vallfv  Wallod  across  Ijy  the  Biafo.  — Crossing  the  (ilacier.  —  The  Boulder  of  Korophon. — 
Oscillations  in  the  Volume  of  the  Biafo  (ilacier  from  1861  onwards.  —  Inundation  of  the 
Braldoh  Valley.  —  Present  Condition  of  the  Glaciers  in  the  Western  Himalaya.  —  The 
Biaho  Valley.  —  Mango  Ousor.  —  The  Ford  of  the  Punmah.  — •  The  New  Mustagh.  — 
Deserted  Passes.  —  Bardunial.  —  First  Sight  of  the  Baltoro.  —  The  Trout  of  the  Biaho.  — 
Paiju.  —  The  Snout  of  the  Baltoro.  —  Striking  Absence  of  Frontal  Moiaine.  —  Olaciological 
Xotes.  —  (letting  on  the  < Uacier.  —  The  Layer  of  Moraine.  —  Appearance  of  the  Baltoro.  — 
<;iacier  Lakes  and  Torrents.  —  Walls  of  the  Lower  Baltoro.  —  Paiju  Peak.  —  Machichand 
Camp.  —  Marginal  Lakes.  —  Liligo  Glacier.  —  The  Mustagh  Tower.  —  Second  and  Third 
Southern  Confluents  of  the  Baltoro.  —  The  Gasherbrum  Range.  —  The  Buttress  of  Rdokass. 

We  set  out  from  Askoley  a  little 
before  six  o'clock  on  the  morning 
of  May  16th,  very  impatient  to 
get  at  last  within  sight  of  the 
goal  we  had  come  so  far  to  seek. 
At  Srinagar  we  had  taken  leave 
of  civilization,  and  at  Skardu  of 
its  slender  and  far-reaching  ten- 
tacle, the  telegraph  wire  ;  but  at 
Askoley  we  were  cutting  ourselves 
off  from  human  society  altogether, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  ice  deserts 
of  the  Karakoram. 

A  little  above  Askoley,  where 

a  broad  squat  tower  bears  witness 

to  the  ancient  strife  against  the 

Hunza  raiders,  we  came  down  into 

the  alluvial  bed  left  dry  by  the  stream  now  at  low  water.     Farther  on, 

however,  the  river  flows  close  round  the  foot  of  a  rocky  spur,  which  we 

were  thus  forced  to  cross  by  a  short  climb.     The  Biafo  glacier,  lying  in 

(9221)  " L 


1G2 


Chapter   X. 


its  deep  valley,  was  not  yet  visible,  but  beyond  it  sti'etched  the  range 
of  icy  peaks  which  form  the  eastern  wall  of  the  Punmah  valley, 
dominated  by  a  magnificent  mountain  known  to  the  natives  as  Paiju, 
because  its  other  slope  overlooks  a  camping  ground  of  this  name  at  the 
foot  of  the  Baltoro  glacier. 

We  now  once  more  made  our  way  across  the  shingle  and  pebbles  of 
the  valley  bottom,  no  longer  the  narrow  gorge  it  was  below  Askoley, 
but  over  a  mile  wide  and  quite  level.     In  less  than  an  hour  we  stood 


■I'ltK    FdKT     VT    ASKOLEV. 


before  the  marvellous  spectacle  of  the  Biafo  ice  stream,  over  300  feet 
high,  which,  coming  down  out  of  a  tributary  valley  on  the  right,  breaks 
into  the  Braldoh  valley  and  appears  to  cut  it  off  for  its  whole  width 
as  far  as  the  rocks  at  the  foot  of  Mango  Gusor.  The  glacier  is  covered 
with  a  black  layer  of  shingle,  showing  the  clear  ice  only  in  vertical 
breaks  and  cracks.  In  its  invasion  of  the  Braldoh  valley  it  has  pushed 
the  river  up  against  the  left  wall  of  the  valley,  while  its  own  emissary, 
the  Biafo  torrent,  escapes  from  its  side  near  the  right  bank  of  the  valley 
and  meets  the  Braldoh  farther  down.  The  two  rivers  and  the  side  of 
the  glacier  thus  enclose  an  irregular  sandy  delta  on  the  level  valley 
l)ed,  which  is  dotted  with  brushwood,  dwarf  junipers  and  willows.^ 

'  The  tciininal  snout  of  thi'  Biafo  and  the  delta  betwiin  tlic  two  rivers  are  clearly  \nsil)le  in 
the  panorama  reproduced  opposite  p.  158. 


From  Askolev  lo  IJdokass. 


163 


We  had  no  difficulty  in  fording   the  various  branches  by  which  the 
Biafo   torrent   leaves   the  glacier,   to  whose  immense  proportions   the 


VIEW   OF   THE   BALTORO   OUCIER    AND   PAIJU. 


volume  of  water  so  httle  corresponds  as  to  lead  us  to  suspect  that  its 
main  output  nuist  still  be  through  its  snout,  where  the  waters  mingle 
with  those  of  the  Braldoh.     The  side  of  the  Biafo,  which  is  tinged  at 

(9221)  L  2 


164 


(MiJiptor   X. 


intervals  of  a  few  yards  with  small  and  low  moraine  deposits,  is  com- 
pletely covered  with  stones,  in  spite  of  its  steepness.  From  the  top 
of  this  lateral  wall  the  surface  still  rises  gradually  until  al)out  the  middle 
of  the  glacier,  where  it  must  be  some  400  or  500  feet  thick.  No  longer 
compressed  witliin  tlie  naiiow  walls  of  its  native  valley,  the  glacier 
spreads  out  in  the  shape  of  a  fan,  some  two  miles  in  width.  Our  way 
across,  however,  was  about  twice  as  long,  because  the  surface  was  extremely 
irregidar,  covered  with  fiagments  of  all  sorts  of  rock — granite,  quartz, 


COOLIES   BESTING. 


schist,  and  occasionally  limestone — and  we  had  to  take  a  very  winding 
route.  There  were  few  great  boulders  and  few  open  crevasses,  but  there 
were  frequent  splits,  where  one  of  the  margins  has  sunk  below  the  other, 
forming  perpendicular  steps  from  a  few  inches  to  several  yards  in  height. 
The  surface  melting  had  not  as  yet  gone  very  far.  There  were  only  a 
few  pools  on  the  right  side  of  the  glacier,  a  few  riAiilets  and  occasional 
glacial  tables  which  had  not  reached  any  great  height.  As  you  look 
across  the  valley  from  the  centre  you  get  the  impression  that  the  glacier 
actually  reaches  the  rocks  of  the  left  valley  wall.  This  w^as,  however, 
a  mile  off,  and  we  could  not  be  certain.     A  couple  of  hours  brought  us 


From  Askoley  to   Hdokass.  1G5 

to  the  left  side  of  the  glacier,  which  is  higher  and  steeper  than  the  right, 
and  descending  which  we  reached  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  From  this 
point  onwards  it  is  known  as  the  Biaho. 

A  few  hundred  yards  above  the  glacier  lies  a  gigantic  boulder  called 
Korophon,  at  whose  foot  shepherds  are  accustomed  to  shelter  at  night. 
Here  we  halted  to  examine  the  snout  of  the  Biafo.  From  this  point  it 
still  seems  to  close  the  valley  completely,  and  its  thickness  appeared  to 
be  uniform  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  A  projection  of  the  glacier, 
however,  prevented  our  seeing  whether  any  space  is  left  for  the  Biaho 
between  the  end  of  the  snout  and  the  side  of  the  valley,  or  whether  the 
water  passes  through  a  tunnel  under  the  glacier.  On  our  return  journey 
Sella  tried  to  reach  the  snout  of  the  glacier  to  make  sure  whether  the 
valley  is  completely  cut  off  or  no,  but  he  was  prevented  by  the  lateral 
torrents,  swollen  from  the  summer  melting.  It  was  only  when,  on  our 
return  journey,  we  ascended  the  left  side  of  the  Braldoh  valley  on  the 
Skoro  La  road  that  we  clearly  saw  the  river  flowing  under  the  open  sky 
through  a  narrow  gap  between  the  valley  wall  and  the  steep  front  of 
the  glacier.  The  latter  showed  no  trace  of  frontal  moraine.  It  is, 
however,  possible  that  at  some  point  of  the  left  half  of  the  glacier  the 
ice  may  bridge  over  the  river  and  actually  reach  the  rock. 

I  have  described  in  detail  the  position  of  the  Biafo  in  the  summer 
of  1909,  becaiise  it  has  passed  through  considerable  changes  during 
the  last  fifty  years.  Godwin  Austen  foimd  it  in  1861  fiUing  the  valley 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  resting  its  snout  on  the  rocks  of  Mango  Gusor 
and  entirely  covering  the  river.  In  1892  Sir  Martin  Conway  found  the 
snout  a  quarter  of  a  mile  away  fi'om  the  wall  of  the  valley,  and  noted 
that  during  August  it  lost  another  quarter  of  a  mile.  As  it  withdrew, 
it  left  before  it  a  wide  moraine  covered  with  earth  and  vegetation.  This 
diminution  in  volume  lasted  and  its  rate  increased  during  the  following 
years,  for  in  1899  the  Workmans  found  the  Biafo  so  shrunk  as  barely  to 
reach  the  outlet  into  the  Braldoh  valley  at  all.  Then  a  period  of  increase 
must  have  followed.  In  1902,  according  to  Guillarmod.  the  glacier  had 
again  advanced  as  far  as  the  right  bank  of  the  Braldoh  river,  dri\dng 
before  it  a  low  frontal  moraine.^     The  Workmans,  however,   on  their 

'  Dr.  Pfan.n'l  does  not  mention  this  frontal  moraine,  and  describes  tlie  Biafn  as  a  mass  of 
ice  600  or  700  feet  thick,  protruding  across  the  valley,  squeezing  the  Braldoh  into  a  narrow  bed 
and  ending  with  a  steep  snout  400  feet  above  the  river.  This  description  agrees  with  our  observa- 
tions made  in  1909  (see  3titl.  d.  Oetig.  Ges.  Wien,  47,  1904,  p.  255). 

(0221)  L  3 


166  Chapter  X. 

return  to  the  region  in  1908,  noted  the  Biafo  as  practically  in  the 
same  position  in  which  they  had  found  it  in  1899.  Therefore,  between 
their  two  expeditions  it  must  have  grown  and  shrunk  again.  Finally, 
in  the  year  between  the  last  \Tsit  of  the  Workmans  and  the  Duke's 
expedition  it  must  evidently  have  increased  again  considerably. 

It  would  be  strange  if  during  such  constant  oscillations  the  Biafo 
had  not  at  some  time  quite  dammed  up  the  Biaho  river  so  as  to  form 
a  lake.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Godwin  Austen  found  cuirent  among  the 
natives  of  Askoley  the  legend  of  such  an  accident,  occurring  perhaps 
some  two  centuries  earher.  When  the  pent-up  waters  forced  their  way 
the  devouring  flood  swept  off  a  village  of  the  Braldoh  valley  and  carried 
its  mosque  entire  down  to  the  Shigar  river.  The  sacred  edifice  which 
had  performed  so  miraculous  a  voyage  was  rebuilt,  piece  bv  piece,  in 
another  village  of  the  Braldoh  valley,  where  it  was  still  to  be  seen  in 
1861. 

The  alternate  growth  and  shrinkage  of  glaciers  at  short  intervals 
has  been  observed  at  many  other  points  in  this  region.  For  instance, 
the  caravan  route  from  Leh  to  Kashgar  over  the  Karakoram  pass  was 
obliged  to  abandon  the  upper  Shyok  valley,  which  was  too  often 
blocked  by  the  glaciers  flowing  down  the  confluent  gorges,  and  to  follow 
a  much  longer  and  less  direct  route.  Dr.  Longstaff  has  collected  and 
compared  the  existing  data  and  local  traditions  on  the  oscillations  of 
these  glaciers,  which  have  more  than  once  dammed  the  stream  of  the 
Shyok  and  caused  vast  disasters. 

Observations  made  on  glacial  changes  are  of  real  practical  import- 
ance, because  they  afford  the  only  possible  way  of  determining  changes 
of  climate  too  slow  and  gradual  to  be  studied  directly.  To  establish, 
however,  the  behaviour  of  the  glaciers  of  any  region  it  is  necessarj^  to 
keep  a  good  number  under  observation  throughout  a  period  of  years, 
so  as  to  get  general  results  rather  than  isolated  cases.  If  we  consider 
the  single  observations  made  by  travellers,  we  can  only  conclude  that 
in  the  Himalaya  in  general  and  the  Karakoram  in  particular  every 
glacier  appears  to  obey  laws  of  its  own,  as  we  read  of  some  which  show 
all  the  signs  of  rapid  shrinkage,  others  undoubtedly  stationary  for 
long  periods,  and  others  which,  on  equally  unexceptionable  testimony, 
are  in  a  period  of  actual  increase,  occasionally  so  rapid  as  to  sweep  away 
and  bury  in  their  irresistible  progress  whole  fields  and  cultivated  tracts, 
and  to  threaten  neighbouring  villages  with  ruin.     Behaviour  .so  capricious 


From  Askoley  to  Rdokass.  i67 

on  the  part  of  phenomena  which  must  presumably  depend  upon  local 
conditions  common  to  all,  might  possibly  be  explained  by  periodic 
changes  of  climate  following  each  other  at  short  intervals,  as  the  time 
required  for  masses  of  snow  precipitated  in  the  upper  basins  to  produce 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  glacier  snouts  may  vary  very  con- 
siderably, according  to  the  shape  of  the  basins  and  the  length  and 
slope  of  the  valleys. 

The  Geological  Office  of  India  undertook  in  1905  a  series  of 
observations  on  the  conditions  of  the  glaciers  of  the  western  Himalaya, 
to  be  repeated  at  regular  intervals.  There  is  hope  that  in  a  few  years 
the  work  thus  done  may  lead  to  some  exact  conclusions.^  Meantime 
we  may  refer  to  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Arthur  Neve,  who,  after  observing 
a  great  numbei"  of  glacieis  in  the  regions  round  Kashmir  at  varying 
intervals  of  time,  is  of  opinion  that  they  are,  on  the  whole,  in  a  period 
of  growth.-  LongstafE  also  found  many  glaciers  in  process  of  increase 
in  tlie  valleys  of  the  eastern  Karakoram,  while  the  writings  of  Godwin 
Austen,  Conway  and  the  Workraans  abound  in  confirmatory  examples. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  wise  to  take  into  account  the  cases  which  go  to  show 
the  contrary- — they  are  not  few  in  number,  and  have  been  observed  by 
the  same  travellers  in  the  same  regions — and  to  reserve  judgment, 
contenting  ourselves  with  careful  observations  of  the  appearance  and 
position  of  the  glaciers  when  occasion  offers. 

The  Biaho  valley,  wide  and  with  a  level  bottom,  rises  gradually 
and  without  sudden  breaks  eastward  to  the  foot  of  the  Baltoro,  about 
820  feet  higher  up.  On  lea\4ug  Korophon  we  marched  along  the  bottom 
of  the  valley  on  the  right  bank  of  the  stream,  admiring  as  we  went  the 
tremendous  rock  wall  of  Mango  Gusor,  formed  of  great  slabs  of  absolutely 
smooth  stone  which  seemed  from  in  fi'ont  to  be  nearly  vertical.*  An 
hour's  march  brought  us  to  the  opening  of  the  tributary  valley  of  Punmah, 
and  we  crossed  the  sandy  delta  to  the  river,  some  200  feet  wide  and  two 
feet  deep,  flowing  swiftly  over  a  pebbly  bed.  Our  Shikari  Abdullah 
and  two  strong  coolies  saved  us  from  a  wetting  by  carrying  us  across 
on  their  shoulders.     Later  in  the  season  the  river  becomes  so  much 

'  Sfc  H.  H.  HAVDEy,  Notes  on  Certain  Glaciers  in  N.W.  Kashmir  ;  and  Survey  of  Glaciers  in 
A'.ir.  Hiimluya.  Sec.  Geol.  Sun:  of  India.  ."5.5.  1007,  p.  123  ;  T.  H.  Holl-VXD.  Glacier  Movements 
in  the  Uimnlayas.     Geog.  Jour.  31,  1908,  p.  315. 

*  A.  Neve,  Rapid  Glacial  Advance  in  the  Hindu  Kush.     Alp.  Jour.  23,  1907,  p.  400. 

'  On  till'  northern  slope  of  Mango  Ousor.  more  than  3,000  feet  ahove  the  bottom  of  the  valley, 
Sir  W.  JI.  Conway  found  the  imprint  of  a  colossal  glacier  which  must  at  one  time  have  filled  it. 
(9221)  L  4 


ms 


r'li;i])tor    X. 


higher  as  to  be  no  longer  fordable,  and  the  traveller  is  obliged  to  ascend 
the  valley  to  the  jhula  bridge  suspended  across  a  narrow  gorge  three  miles 
higher  up.  We  set  up  our  camp  on  the  alluvial  deposit  dotted  with 
big  stones  which  fills  the  angle  between  the  Punmah  and  Biaho  valleys. 
Here  grows  a  poor  and  sparse  vegetation  of  dwarf  juniper,  wormwood 
and  astragalus.  Mango  Gusor  from  this  point  looks  hke  a  horn 
strangely  twisted  and  bossed,  covered  with  snow  and  ice,  rising  from 


MANGO    GUSOR.    TAKEX    KKOM    THE    C'OXFUE.Vf  E   OK   TIIE    rlNM  \H    WITH    THE    BIAHO. 


a  wide  base  of  black  rock.  The  sky  was  clouded  over  and  the  dark 
atmosphere  hid  the  upper  valley  from  our  view.  Luckily  the  air  was 
calm;  wind  would  have  been  extremely  obnoxious  in  this  crotch  of 
the  valleys  where  we  had  raised  our  tents. 

The  Punmah  valley,  which  ran  up  northward  in  our  rear,  leads  to 
a  vast  and  complicated  glacier  system,  across  which  the  peoples  on  either 
side  of  the  Karakoram  contrived  to  find  a  route  by  a  pass  of  some 
19,000  feet,  known  as  the  New  Mustagh,  because  it  was  intended  to 
take  the  place  of  the  old  pass  of  the  same  name  situated  in  the  northern 


From  Askolev  to   IMokass. 


169 


range  of  the  Baltoro  when  that  became  impassable  owing  to  changes 
in  the  glaciers.  Now,  however,  the  New  Mustagh  has  also  been  given 
up,  either  because  the  raids  of  the  Hunza  robbers  have  given  it  ill  fame, 
or  else  because  its  glaciers  too  have  become  harder  to  cross. 

No  European  has  ever  crossed  the  New  Mustagh.  In  1856  Rudolf 
Schlagintweit  tried  the  ascent  from  Askoley,  but  was  driven  back  by 
a  snowstorm.     Godwin  Austen  had  the  same  experience  in  1861.     He 


AX    ALLrVIAI.    DELTA    OK   THE   BIAHO. 


met  on  the  glacier  four  Baltis,  who  came  from  Yarkand,  and  he  says 
that  it  would  be  quite  easy  to  trace  a  convenient  and  safe  route  across 
the  pass,  which  is  approached  on  itoth  sides  by  so  easy  a  slope  that  it 
was  formerly  iised  for  horses  and  yaks.  Drew  gives  quite  a  different 
account,  stating  that  the  horses  had  to  be  hauled  up  by  ropes,  and  that 
it  took  several  men  to  hoist  and  support  them,  so  that  the  pass  fell  into 
disuse,  and  between  1863  and  1870  all  communication  ceased  between 
Baltistan  and  Turkestan.  The  last  to  try  to  reach  the  New  Mustagh 
was  Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  who  had  reached  Askoley  by  the  older 


170  Chapter  X. 

pass  of  the  same  name  in  1887.  His  ascent  was  stopped  by  falls  of 
seracs,  which  seems  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  story  that  the  glaciers 
liad  changed.  In  fact,  twenty  years  previously  Godwin  Austen  had 
noted  that  the  Punmah  glacier  had  so  far  progressed  as  to  cover  the 
path  for  some  distance,  and  even  the  site  which  had  been  used  for  a 
camping-ground.  He  also  mentions  another  important  symptom  of 
change  in  the  climate  of  the  region — namely,  that  at  Shigar  from  1849 
onward  it  became  impossible  to  ripen  two  crops  in  a  season,  as  had 
always  been  done  in  the  past. 

In  addition  to  the  two  Mustaghs,  a  number  of  other  passes  which 
used  to  join  Baltistan  with  the  Hunza-Nagar  district,  Yarkand,  etc., 
have  been  so  utterly  abandoned  that  in  some  cases  it  is  no  longer 
known  where  they  were.  The  only  pass  which  still  remains  open  is 
the  Karakoram,  much  further  eastward  and  coming  under  the  influence 
of  the  arid  climate  of  Tibet,  thanks  to  which  it  is  free  from  ice  and  snow, 
though  nearly  19,000  feet  in  altitude. 

The  next  day,  May  17th,  we  started  off  early,  because  the  Duke 
wanted  to  camp  that  very  evening  at  the  foot  of  the  Baltoro.  \Vc  still 
had  the  advantage  of  the  season  of  low  water,  and  could  march  in  a 
straight  Hne  over  the  sand  and  pebbles  of  the  river  bed,  thus  saving  the 
long  ups  and  downs  of  the  path  which  skirts  the  flank.  ^ 

From  Bardumal,  a  halting-place  marked  by  a  boulder  considerably 
smaller  than  that  of  Korophon,  we  enjoyed  a  fine  view  up  the  Shingkan 
valley,  a  tributary  on  the  left  crowned  by  a  group  of  high  snow  peaks. 
Here  the  Biaho  valley,  still  running  eastward,  takes  a  shght  trend  to 
the  north,  and  the  river  flows  around  the  foot  of  the  northern  wall,  so 
that  we  had  to  climb  up  on  the  alluvial  terraces.  Once  we  had  rounded 
this  barrier,  we  returned  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley. 

A  little  farther  on  our  way  was  cut  across  by  a  wide  terrace  which 
has  driven  the  river  to  the  left.  This  terrace  forms  a  sort  of  table-land 
with  a  rolling  surface,  whose  transversal  ridges  are  very  slightly  marked 
and  dotted  wdth   medium-sized  boulders  mainly  composed  of  granite 

'  Guiliarmod  relates  that  ho  and  the  rest  of  tlie expedition  of  wliieli  he  was  a  ineinber  began 
between  Korophon  and  Bardumal  to  note  the  first  symptoms  of  fatigue  due  to  altitude,  although 
they  had  stopped  at  Askoley  for  eight  days  in  order  to  rest  and  accustom  themselves  to  the 
thin  air  of  10,000  feet.  Our  own  experience  was  quite  different.  Not  one  of  us  thirteen  Europ<'ans 
was  conscious  of  the  least  indisposition,  and  we  reached  the  Baltoro  glacier  with  a  sense  of  absolute 
well-being  and  in  full  enjoyment  of  our  strength,  which  had  been  developed  by  gradual  and 
continuous  training.     We  had  not  the  slightest  need  or  wish  to  interrupt  our  march. 


From  Askoley  to   Rdokass. 


171 


in  various  stages  of  disintegration  and  rounded  at  the  comers,  mingled 
with  blocks  and  pebbles  of  Umestone.  The  material  appears,  indeed, 
to  be  alluvial  deposit ;  but  the  aspect  and  shape  of  the  whole  formation, 
running  so  characteristically  across  the  valley,  is  such  as  to  suggest 
an  ancient  frontal  moraine  of  the  Baltoro,  which  now  ends  five  or  six 
miles  farther  up  the  valley.  Between  this  terrace,  however,  and  the 
glacier  hes  a  long  stretch  of  valley  without  the  smallest  trace  of  moraine 


THE   BIAHO   JUST   BELOW    THE   BAI.TORO. 


detritus  ;  and  so  sudden  and  complete  an  interruption  of  the  deposits 
would  be  hard  to  explain.  From  a  httle  lateral  valley,  the  upper  part 
of  which  is  filled  with  a  glacier,  there  runs  down  to  the  centre  of  the 
terrace  a  delta  of  white  stones,  probably  Hmestone,  standing  out  clearly 
against  the  grey  of  the  granites.  The  entire  formation  might  be  just  the 
ancient  alluvial  delta  of  this  tributary. 

Half  way  across  this  terrace  we  suddenly  saw  before  us  the  snout 
of  the  great  Baltoro  glacier,  hke  a  huge  black  monster  crouching  with 
flattened  back  in  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  Here  and  there  we  could 
discern  the  gleam  of  bare  ice  showing  through  some  rift  in  the  dark 
layer  of  detritus  that  covers  it.     There  is  no  accumulation  of  moraine 


172  Chapter  X. 

before  it.  only  a  little  moraine  ridge  clings  to  the  valley  wall,  cutting 
off  our  view  of  the  right  side  of  the  glacier.  From  this  point  Godwin 
Austen  beheld  the  peak  of  K-  and  Guillarmod  the  Mustagh  Tower. 
But  thick  mists  filled  the  high  valleys,  and  we  saw  no  peaks. 

Keeping  our  way  along  the  steep  right  wall,  we  now  traversed  the 
last  stretch  of  valley,  which  here  grew  wader  still,  level,  sandy  and 
sprinkled  with  pebbles.  The  .sand  is  intersected  by  a  network  of  rivulets, 
which  bubble  up  everwhere  in  the  plain  from  absolutely  pure  and 
limpid  springs,  delightful  to  see  and  dehghtful  to  drink  after  weeks  of 
filtered  or  boiled  water  or  tea.  In  the  cold  crystal-clear  water  swim 
little  mountain  trout  seven  or  eight  inches  long.^  Sella,  who  was  some 
distance  behind,  managed  to  catch  a  good  many  of  them  without  net 
or  hook  bv  striking  heavy  blows  with  stones  on  the  rocks  under 
which  they  lurk  and  thus  stunning  them. 

Sheltered  at  the  foot  of  the  last  spur  which  divides  it  from  the 
Baltoro  and  protects  it  from  the  icy  winds,  nesthng  against  the  steep 
right  wall  of  the  valley,  lies  a  little  islet  of  vegetation,  a  strip  of  earth 
covered  with  long  grass,  thick  bushes  and  Httle  willow  and  rose  trees. 
This  is  the  stage  known  as  Paiju.  There  was  a  time  when  the  Baltis 
used  to  come  here  for  a  few  weeks  in  summer  to  dredge  the  valley  sands 
for  gold  which  comes,  according  to  Godwin  Austen,  from  the  granites 
of  the  Masherbrum.  The  place  was  abandoned  because  the  river 
changed  its  course  and  came  to  flow  along  this  side  of  the  valley.  Ferber 
found  that  the  sand  does  contain  gold,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  make  the  process  remunerative. - 

For  the  last  time  we  set  up  our  camp  under  the  trees,  not  far 
from  a  rough  construction  of  stones  which  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
Guillarmod  expedition  had  used  as  a  deposit  for  provisions.  The  Baltoro 
valley  opened  wide  before  us.  Against  a  purple-grey  backgi'ound  of 
relentless  mists  which  concealed  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  stood  out 
upon  its  right  side  three  groups  of  rocky  peaks,  ending  in  a  host  of 
turrets,  pinnacles  and  needles,  strangely  wild  and  menacing  to  behold. 
On  the  other  side  is  a  .short  chain  simpler  in  form,  which  just  above 

•  This  species  of  trout  (T.  Himalayana)  appears  to  be  the  sole  inhabitant  of  the  streams 
of  the  U|)per  Himalaya.  Cunningham  caught  some  that  were  over  15  inches  long  in  the  torrents 
of  Ladakh,  about  15,000  feet  high.  Vigne,  too,  says  it  is  the  only  fish  inhabiting  the  Indus  at 
Skardu. 

-  A.  C.  Ferber.  .-In  Exploration  o/  the  Mvslagh  Pans  in  the  Karahmim  Himalayas.  Geog. 
Jour.  30,  1907,  p.  630. 


From   Askoley  to  Kdolcass.  173 

the  termination  of  the  Baltoro  glacier  rises  into  a  peak  bristling  with 
sharp  teeth,  out  of  a  base  covered  with  snow.  This  and  Paiju  Peak — 
far  more  important  but  invisible  from  our  camp,  over  which  it 
towers — are  the  two  gate-posts  at  the  entrance  of  the  fantastic  world 
into  which  we  were  about  to  penetrate.  From  the  tributary  valleys 
round  about  us  on  both  sides  of  the  Biaho  run  down  glaciers 
broken  into  icefaUs,  and  black  with  moraine  throughout  the  lower 
portion,  all  of  them  terminating  at  about  the  same  height  as  the 
Baltoro. 

On  the  rocks  above  our  camp,  which  are  covered  with  clay,  woiii 
out  and  furrowed  by  water-courses,  we  counted  thirty  ibexes. 
Partridges  nest  in  the  bushes  just  above  the  camp.  The  whole  caravan 
was  now  united,  as  the  coolies  sent  ahead  from  Askoley  had  taken  three 
days  to  do  the  journey.  We  formed  a  community  of  nearly  400  persons. 
As  night  fell  the  air  grew  suddenly  cold,  and  soon  the  whole  place 
sparkled  with  little  fires,  about  which  moved  the  dim  shadows  of  the 
coolies. 

May  18th  da\\nied  with  the  usual  doubtfid  and  cloudy  weather, 
which  seemed  to  mock  our  impatience  for  a  glimpse  of  the  new  world 
before  us.  The  sun  rose  wearily  through  the  thick  veils  of  cloud  and 
dense  vapour  which  hung  heavily  upon  the  ^^pper  Baltoro.  We 
marched  hastily  round  the  foot  of  the  last  spur,  which  was  clothed  witli 
moraine  up  to  some  300  feet  high.  The  ice  wall  of  the  Baltoro  glacier 
lies  some  300  yards  farther  on,  and  in  the  corner  between  it  and  the 
spur  is  a  little  remnant  of  moraine  about  50  yards  away  from  the 
glacier. 

The  river  issues  from  the  glacier  not  in  the  middle  of  the  front  but 
nearer  the  right  margin,  and  out  of  a  tunnel  so  low^  that  the  stream 
seems  to  spring  between  the  glacier  and  the  stony  bed  of  the  valley. 
At  the  point  of  issue  the  front  of  the  glacier  has  a  deep  indentation 
which  divides  it  into  two  unequal  parts,  that  to  the  right  forming  a 
steep  wall  300  or  400  feet  high,  at  whose  foot  we  have  just  arrived  ; 
and  a  greater  lobe  to  the  left,"  comprising  at  least  three-quarters  of  the 
whole  frontage.  This  main  part  runs  about  half  a  mile  farther  down 
the  valley  than  the  right  portion,  and  terminates  in  a  tongue  of  ice 
less  steep  and  less  thick,  which  is  divided  only  by  a  httle  moraine 
from  the  snout  of  another  glacier  running  out  towards  it  from  a  small 
tributary  valley  on  the  left. 


174 


Chapter  X. 


Godwin  Austen  and  Conway  found  the  snout  of  the  Baltoio  in  much 
the  same  condition.  Both,  however,  describe  the  river  as  issuing  from 
a  veritable  tunnel  with  a  high  roof,  from  the  edge  of  which  ice  blocks 
were  constantly  falling.  In  Conway's  time  the  front  was  divided  into 
three  lobes  instead  of  two.  Godwin  Austen  furthermore  mentions  a 
large  boulder  lying  in  the  middle  of  the  river  at  a  certain  distance  from 
the  glacier.  This  boulder  is  recognizable  in  the  illustration  in  Conway's 
book  as  well  as  in  one  of  the  photographs  taken  by  Sella,  which  woidd 


THE    SXOUT   OF   THE    BALTORO. 


lead  MS  to  suppose  that  from  1861  to  the  present  day  the  snout  of  the 
Baltoro  has  remained  stationary  or  undergone  changes  of  small  import. 
I  must,  however,  note  that  Godwin  Austen  had  the  impression  from 
Conway's  photographs  that  the  glacier  came  down  farther  in  1892  than 
in  186P;  while  H.  F.  Montagnier  in  June,  1903,  found  the  Baltoro 
pressing  with  its  right  edge  against  the  moraine  ridge  which  I  have 
described,  on  the  wall  of  the  valley.  The  latter  was  rapidly  disintegrating 
and  rolling  its  pebbles  down  upon  the  glacier.-     If  so  the  snout  must 

^  See  report  of  discussion  after  the  lecture  of  Sir  W.  M.  Conway  at  the  Roy.  Geog.  Soc,  in 
Oeog.  Jour.  2,  1893,  p.  301. 

-  Verbal  communication  made  to  me  by  M.  Montagnier  in  London,  Dec.  1910. 


From  Askoley  to  Rdokass. 


17') 


have  retreated  about  300  yards  between  1903  and  1909,  an  insignificant 
shrinkage  in  an  ice-stream  about  36  miles  long.  ^ 

The  front  throughout  its  whole  extent  is  formed  of  live  ice  down 
to  the  bottom,  without  any  fringe  of  moraine.  At  the  foot  of  the  wall 
there  are  merely  a  few  scattered  blocks  of  medium  size,  and  a  httle 
farther  down  no  tiace  of  moraine  detritus  is  to  be  found  on  the  level 
alluvial  vallev   bottom.     This   entire  absence  of  frontal  moraine  in   a 


THK  ENU  OF  THE  (.L.U  lER  AND  THE  SOVRCE  OF  THE  BIAHO  TORRENT. 

glaciey  so  vast  and  so  entirely  covered  by  a  thick  layer  of  moraine 
material,  whose  snout  seems  to  have  remained  about  in  the  same  place 
for  the  last  fifty  years,  is  certainly  amazing.  The  AN'orkmans  have 
observed  the  same  absence  of  frontal  moraine  in  several  of  the  great 
glaciers  explored  by  them,  while  sometimes  othere  quite  close  to  them 
would  have  their  whole  frontage  covered  with  high  and  thick  moraines. 


•  Guillarmod's  book  does  not  give  any  exact  data  as  to  the  look  of  the  front  of  the  Baltoio 
in  1902.  The  article  of  Dr.  Pfaitsl  in  Zeit.  d.  dent.  «.  oeat.  Alpenver.  35,  1904,  p.  96,  contains 
an  illustration  showing  the  mouth  of  the  Biafo  river  and  the  snout  of  the  slaeier.  where  they  seem 
to  have  the  same  aijpearance  and  cliaracter  as  tliat  noted  by  us  in  1909. 


176  Cha))tt'r  X. 

Our  theoiies  as  to  the  formation  of  fioutal  moraines  afford  no  con- 
vincing explanation  of  this  strange  phenomenon.^  We  are  thus  obliged 
to  fall  back  upon  other  considerations  suggested  by  the  condition  of  the 
particular  glacier  basins  where  the  phenomenon  in  question  is  displayed. 

The  chaiacteristic  absence  of  frontal  moraine  has  been  most 
especially  observed  in  the  largest  glaciers,  such  as  the  Siachen,  Biafo, 
HLspar,  Baltoro  and  Chogo  Lungma,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last,  are  all  over  30  miles  long  and  occupy  wide  valleys  with  very  slight 
inclination,  so  that  their  progress  must  be  determined  rather  by  pressure 
of  the  ice  masses  coming  down  from  the  upper  basins  than  by  their 
own  plasticity  and  weight.  The  absence  of  frontal  moraine  can  be 
explained  only  by  the  immobihty  of  the  terminal  portion  of  these 
glaciers,  which  has  turned  into  dead  or  stagnant  ice,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered, geologically  speaking,  in  every  respect  as  rock.  The  snouts 
of  these  huge  ice  rivers  would  thus  stand  for  an  ancient  phase  of 
development.  They  are,  as  it  were,  the  fossils  of  a  previous  glacial 
period.  To  this  a  period  of  suspended  advance  must  have  succeeded, 
or  even  a  shrinlcage  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  glacier,  leaving  this 
extreme  end  where  it  stood.  This  presumable  immobility  of  the  snout 
by  no  means  excludes  the  possibiUty  of  a  fresh  period  of  activity 
following  after,  such  as  may  possibly  to-day  be  found  going  on  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  Baltoro.  The  glacier  in  its  new  acti\'ity  might  flow 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  distance  over  the  dead  ice,  which  forms  its  bed 
just  as  the  bottom  of  the  valley  would.  If  the  pressure  became  sufficient 
it  might  even  revive  the  whole  mass  and  drive  it  farther  down  the 
valley.  Such  would  seem  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  recent  oscillations 
of  the  snout  of  the  Biafo  which  I  have  mentioned  above. 

The  recent  sUght  displacements  in  the  snout  of  the  Baltoro,  which 
seem  quite  estabhshed  when  we  compare  our  own  observations  with 
the  descriptions  of  our  predecessors,  do  not  actually  contradict  this 
theory.  It  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  bulk  of  dead  ice  may  have 
been  pushed  forward  by  pressure  from  the  rear  without  changing  its 
condition  of  intrinsic  immobility — that  is  to  sa}',  without  any  flow  of 
ice  caused  bv  its  own  plasticity,  the  only  form  of  motion  which  could 

'  See  on  this  point  the  discussion  which  took  place  at  the  Enghsh  Royal  Geog.  Soc.  after 
the  lecture  of  Dr.  Workman  :  From  Srinagar  to  the  Sources  of  the  Chogo  Lungma.  Geog.  Jour.  25, 
1905,  p.  245 ;  and  the  comments  of  the  same  author  in  Exphraiion  of  the  Nun  Kttn  Mountain 
Group,  etc.     Geog.  Jour.  31,  1908,  pp.  34^35. 


From  Askoley  to  Rdokass.  177 

cause  an  active  and  continuous  carriage  of  material  from  the  high  valley 
to  the  front  of  the  glacier.  It  may  be  that  the  Baltoro  is  again 
preparing  for  a  period  of  activity  in  the  more  or  less  remote  future. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  especially  on  our  return  journey  in  the  beginning 
of  August,  we  noted  for  some  miles  through  the  lower  portion  of  the 
glacier  great  waves  rather  deeply  marked,  whose  direction  was  mainly 
transversal,  whereas  higher  up  the  ridges  and  hoUows  ran  lengthwise. 
This  traiLsversal  imdulation  of  the  glacier  might  be  the  result  of  immense 
pressure  exercised  by  the  volume  of  confluent  glaciers  in  a  state  of  active 
increase. 

The  formation  of  dead  ice  either  separate  fi'om  or  else  more  or  less 
closely  related  to  the  original  glacier  is  a  phenomenon  long  famiUar 
to  students  of  glaciology.  Examples  of  it  on  a  much  smaller  scale 
may  be  found  in  our  own  Alps.  The  above  considerations,  which  have 
been  suggested  to  me  by  Ingegnere  Vittorio  Novarese,  of  the  Eegio 
Ufficio  Geologico,  I  have  dwelt  upon  at  some  length  in  the  hope  of 
drawing  the  attention  of  travellers  to  a  state  of  things  which,  if  con- 
firmed by  further  observations,  would  bring  about  results  of  real 
importance  to  the  study  of  glaciology.  ^ 

The  end  of  the  Baltoro  is  about  11,000  feet  above  sea  level,  some 
820  feet  above  the  end  of  the  Biafo.  Of  the  other  great  glaciers  of  the 
Karakoram,  the  Siachen  ends  at  an  altitude  of  11.600  feet  (Longstafi, 
1909),  the  Hispar  at  10,803  feet  (Workman,  1908),  and  the  Chogo 
Lungma,  the  lowest  of  all,  at  9,519  feet  (Workman,  1902). 

The  wall  of  the  glacier  facing  us  was  cut  obHquely  by  a  sort  of  narrow 
ledge,  overhvmg  by  big  blocks  of  rock  poised — it  would  be  hard  to  say 
how — upon  the  declivity.  This  ledge  forms  the  way  of  access  to  the 
top  of  the  glacier.  On  the  previous  evening  at  Paiju  it  had  seemed 
settled,  after  endless  discussion,  that  the  coolies  would  cover  in  two 
days  instead  of  three  the  whole  of  the  distance  to  Rdokass,  the  southern 
spur  of  the  Baltoro,  which,  judging  from  Guillarmod's  account,  seemed 
to  be  the  most  suitable  position  for  our  base  camp.  This  morning, 
however,  the  rimaour  was  afloat  that  the  cooUes  were  making  pretexts 
for  delay  in  order  to  force  us  to  set  up  camp  at  Liligo,  a  third  of  the 
whole  distance.     The  Duke  met  this  by  waiting  at  the  foot  of  the  glacier 

•  These  considei-ations,  based  upon  the  glaciological  obsen'ations  of  the  expedition,  were  the 
subject  of  a  communication  by  Ing.  Xovarese  to  the  Ital.  Geolog.  Soc.  (summer  meeting, 
Sept.  1911). 

(9221)  _^ 


178  Chapter  X. 

until  nearly  all  of  the  260  coolies  had  started  off;  it  took  about  an 
hour.     Twenty  minutes  after  we  were  on  the  Baltoro. 

The  top  of  the  slope  was  covered  by  big  blocks  of  granite,  so  hght 
in  colour  as  hardly  to  be  distinguishable  from  the  pieces  of  marble 
mingled  with  them.  We  turned  toward  the  left  or  southern  side  of  the 
valley,  cutting  across  the  glacier  in  an  oblique  line  just  above  the  outlet 
of  the  stream.  Here  the  layer  of  moraine  was  without  any  trace  of 
arrangement  into  stripes,  and  composed  of  widely-contrasted  materials 
— granites  of  every  conceivable  quaUty,  quartzites,  schists,  slates, 
marbles,  many-coloured  conglomerates  and  sihcacious  rocks  of  dark  red 
and  purple  shades.  Nearer  the  left  bank  the  moraine  was  almost  entirely 
composed  of  dark  grey  granite,  liroken  up  into  irregular  fragments. 
The  biggest  blocks  measured  some  15  or  20  feet  in  their  largest  measure- 
ment, grading  down  from  these  to  the  smallest  gravel.  Real  sand 
was  rare.  The  surface  is  irregular ;  we  could  n\ake  out  no  ridges  or 
troughs  arranged  according  to  any  general  orientation.  Yet  this  lower 
portion  of  the  glacier  is  less  unequal  and  broken  than  the  Biafo.  We 
found  it  much  harder  to  traverse  on  our  return  journey  two  months 
later.  There  were  occasional  little  plants  here  and  there  among  the 
stones,  and  even  a  few  small  shrubs  :  init  the  vegetation  was  so  rare 
and  isolated  that  it  seemed  impossible  it  could  give  rise  to  real  thickets 
on  the  moraine  later  in  the  season.  As  we  went  higher,  close  to  the  left 
bank  of  the  glacier,  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  became  more  pro- 
nounced, until  the  whole  looked  as  though  it  had  suffered  some  huge 
convulsion.  It  was  distorted  into  deep  valleys  and  irregular  holes 
among  hills  and  ridges  and  steep  slopes  running  in  every  direction. 
Wherever  the  surface  was  not  absolutely  vertical  these  were  covered 
with  sharp  and  insecure  detritus  stones  that  threatened  sprains  and 
bruises  at  every  step.  The  Duke  walked  ahead  with  our  two  guides 
who  determined  our  route  through  the  labyrinth.  They  set  up  cairns 
on  the  larger  rocks  to  indicate  the  tortuous  path  to  us  coming  after. 

Before  we  had  gone  far  on  our  way  up  and  down  across  the  ridges, 
skirting  the  big  hummocks  and  deep  hollows,  we  began  to  feel  the 
weariness  well-known  to  all  those  who  have  marched  on  moraines. 
And  this  was  the  very  outset  of  a  long  journey.  On  every  side  our  view 
was  cut  off  by  steeps  of  ice  and  stony  slopes,  the  guides  naturally 
preferring  to  follow  the  valleys  and  skirt  the  base  of  the  ridges.  When- 
ever the  caprice  of  our  obstacles  obliged  us  to  cUmb  over  some  higher 


From   Askolev  to  Rdokass. 


179 


ridge  the  gigantic  bulk  of  the  Baltoro  offered  us  the  same  uniform  Aaew, 
of  an  unbounded  desert  covered  with  masses  of  detritus,  Avith  here  and 
there  a  gleam  of  black  or  bluish  ice  laid  bare  by  a  fissure. 

The  air  was  heavy  and  close,  though  here,  as  on  the  Biafo,  the 
melting  had  scarcely  begun.  Onlv  here  and  there  did  we  encounter 
a  small  livulet  or  glacial  pool;  yet  the  water  has  no  channel  through  the 


SURFACE    LAKE   OX    THE    LOWER    BALTORO. 


depth  of  the  glacier,  there  are  no  open  crevasses  and  none  of  the  glacier 
moulins,  those  characteristic  wells  so  common  in  our  own  glaciers  below 
the  snow  line,  by  which  the  water  produced  by  surface  melting  dis- 
appears into  the  depths.  We  found  signs  of  running  waters,  however, 
in  the  shape  of  round  worn  pebbles  of  typical  allu\'ial  appearance, 
mingled  in  small  numbei-s  with  the  sharp-cornered  moraine  fragments. 
The  glacier  fills  the  valley  from  side  to  side,  forming  a  V-shaped  trough 
between  its  steep  side  and  the  rocks  of  the  valley  wall.      On  the  maps 

(9221)  M  -2 


180 


duiptor  X. 


of  Conway  and  Guillarmod  a  torrent  runs  through  this  deep  trough, 
but  it  did  not  appear  to  be  flowing  as  yet.  No  tributary  glacier  flows 
into  the  Baltoro  from  the  south  side,  by  which  we  were  ascending  it, 
for  the  first  four  miles  of  the  lower  course.  ^  But  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valley  there  flows  into  the  Baltoro  a  few  hundred  yards  above  its  end 
a  large  confluent  bare  of  moi'aine,  which,  hke  a  stream  in  flood  over- 


TRE    ri.I    niAIIil    i:l,ACIF,R   JOINIX<:    THE    BAI.TOKCJ. 


flowing  the  surface  of  the  river  it  enters,  overrides  the  Baltoro  for  a 
long  distance  with  its  dazzUng  white  torrent  of  seracs.  Between  two  and 
three  miles  farther  up  a  second  tributary  valley  opens  on  the  same  side, 
as  deep  and  level  as  the  first  in  its  lower  course,  but  much  wider.  Out 
of  this,  too,  flows  a  glacier  with  a  wide  medial  moraine,  and  overtops 
the  margin  of  the  Baltoro  with  a  high  front  of  seracs.     These  valleys 

•  The  map  of  tin-  Baltoro  contained  in  tliis  volume  shows  only  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
glacier,  which  the  reader  must  imagine  to  be  prolonged  for  10  miles  more  toward  the  west.  The 
little  panorama  which  is  here  reproduced,  together  with  the  left  half  of  panorama  B,  must  maki' 
up  for  the  lack  of  the  map. 


Fiolu   Askolev  to  Rdokass. 


181 


are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  rocky  spurs  which  we  had  ah-eady 
admired  from  Paiju,  and  which  from  near  at  hand  appear  even  more 
inaccessible.  They  form  a  wild  architecture  of  their  own,  a  maze  of 
turrets,  pinnacles,  needles,  reaching  up  to  a  height  of  some  1,000  feet 
and  so  precipitous  that  they  scarcely  leave  the  perpendicular  from  top 
to  bottom.     They  remind  one  of  the  dolomite  towers,  but  it  was  difficult 


THE    STONY    WASTE    Of    THE    LOWER    BALTORO,    SHOWING    THE    NORTHERV    WALL. 

from  this  distance  to  recognize  the  true  nature  of  the  formation.  To 
the  west  of  these  we  saw  Paiju  Peak,  a  pile  of  triangular  rock  pyramids 
rising  one  above  another,  cleai-ly  outlined  by  their  ice  ridges  and  lifting 
up  a  symmetrical  pointed  summit  completely  covered  with  snow. 

About  half-past  nine  we  reached  a  point  opposite  a  little  gorge 
opening  out  in  the  left  wall  of  the  valley,  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  free 
a  small  space  at  the  bottom  of  the  gully  between  the  glacier  and  the 
rock.  This  was  the  stage  known  as  Liligo.  Here  the  coolies  crowded 
round  us,  trying  to  induce  us  to  stop,  though  it  w^as  still  quite  early. 
We  had  no  great  difficulty  in  persuading  them  to  go  on  for  another  hour, 
when  we  reached  another  couloir  in  the  wall  almost  exactly  similar 
to  the  first.     Here  the  guides  quickly  cut  steps  in  the  steep  side  of  the 

(9221)  M  3 


182 


Clia])ter  X. 


glacier,  which  was  some  200  feet  higli,  and  we  descended  to  a  sort  of  oval 
well,  quite  level,  some  60  yards  wide  by  150  or  200  yards  long,  and 
strewn  with  stones. 

This  place  is  known  to  the  Baltis  as  Machichand.  There  was  nothing 
to  show  that  the  little  hollow  had  ever  been  occupied  by  a  lake. 
Numerous  smooth  pebbles  pointed  rather  to  its  being  occa.sionalIy  the 


PAUr    PEAK.       TAKEN"    BY    TELEPHOTOORAPHl'    FROM    THE    LOWER   BALTORO. 


bed  of  a  torrent.  On  one  side  it  is  bounded  by  the  flank  of  the  Baltoro. 
an  ice  wall  black  with  detritus,  down  which  ran  a  thousand  small 
streams,  ceaselessly  whirling  along  stones  to  the  gully  below,  where 
the  ice  met  the  bottom  of  the  valley  and  a  little  brook  flowed.  On 
the  other  side  the  valley  wall  rises  steeply,  cut  in  the  centre  by  a  ravine. 
It  is  a  great  wall  of  loose  conglomerate,  from  400  to  500  feet  high,  with 
a  clayey  top  eaten  out  and  carved  by  the  waters  into  deep  vertical 
furrows  and  fringes,  forming  a  long  row  of  tall  pillars,  each  of  which  is 
crowned  by  a  rock  or  boulder  resting  on  it  like  a  mushroom  on  its  stalk. 


Paiju  and  the  Towers  on   tlie  north  nf  tlic   Haltoro 


Dill   biiii  uiif.H 


From  Askok'v   to   Hdokass.  183 

They  looked  extremely  unstable,  and  if  it  had  come  on  to  rain  om- 
camping  ground  would  have  proved  very  undesirable.  At  either  end  this 
oval  space  was  blocked  by  the  meeting  of  the  glacier  with  the  wall. 
At  the  upper  end  a  narrow  corridor  remains  free  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gorge ;  at  the  lower  the  glacier  abuts  on  the  rock.  The  section  of  the 
glacier   seen    thus  from  the  side   shows   plainly  in  its  whole  length  the 


V: 


^^ 


"^■^yy-^ — T-wT-.V  ^,  ^* 


W-^ 


THE  CAMP  AT  MACHICHAKD,  LOOKING  VV   THE  VALLEY. 

arrangement  of  the  ice  in  two  horizontal  strata  of  nearly  equal  thick- 
ness, coming  together  along  a  regular  line,  separated  only  by  a  thin 
layer  of  detritus  which  makes  the  formation  c[uite  evident.^  If  we 
admit  the  hypothesis  of  the  immobihty  of  the  snout  of  the  Baltoro, 
the  uj^per  layer  may  be  supposed  to  represent  the  active  glacier  and 
the  lower  the  motionless  mass. 

We  cleared  away  the  detritus  a  Uttle  in  the  centre  of  the  oval  space 
and  set  up  our  tents.  The  coohes  arrived  in  camp  not  by  twos  and 
threes  as  usual,  but  in  numerous  bands,  after  a  very  cautious  descent 
down  the  steps  in  the  ice.  The  fact  is  they  are  afraid  of  the  glacier, 
especially  of  being  alone  upon  it,  to  avoid  which  they  had  finished  their 

'  Tills  arrangement  is  plainly  visible  in  the  illustrations  here  given. 
(9221)  M  4 


184 


Chapter   X. 


short  l)ut  hard  stage  at  unaccustomed  speed.  They  laid  down  tlieir 
loads  and  scattered  up  the  valley  slope  to  hunt  for  firewood.  They 
found  a  few  gnarled  trunks  of  dead  juniper,  and  these  they  rolled  down 
to  tlie  camping  place. ^  A  great  rock  lolled  down  into  the  bargain, 
and  it  was  a  real  miracle  that  it  did  not  crush  any  of  the  coolies  below. 
They  lighted  their  fires  along  the  wall,  where  they  made  their  bivouac 
at  the  greatest  possible  distance  from  the  glacier.  Down  the  latter  at 
very  brief  intervals  stones  and  boulders  came  crashing  with  loud  reports, 


'^. 


^: 


THE   CAMP,    LOOKIXC!    DOWN    THE    VALLEY. 


followed  by  a  trail  of  small  detritus  that  slitl  down  the  ice  with  a  pro- 
longed crackling  sound.  All  this  fell  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  without 
danger  to  us,  but  the  coolies  were  uneasy  and  kept  looking  at  the  glacier 
as  though  they  had  an  obscure  consciousness  of  the  life  animating 
the  huge  mass.  It  is  so  seemingly  inert,  yet  within  so  full  of  motion 
and  ceaseless  transformation,  that  one  gets  an  impression  as  of  some- 
thing furtive  and  insidious,  like  a  monster  crouching.  One  single  raven 
kept  watch  over  our  camp  the  whole  day,  perched  on  a  near-by 
projection  and  following  all  our  movements  with  the  closest  attention. 

'  Guillarmod  noticed  similar  trunks  of  old  juniper  uj)on  the  sIoj)es  above  Liligo,  and  the 
VVorkmans  saw  along  the  sides  of  the  Chogo  Lungma  valley  dead  tree  trunks  considerably 
larger  than  any  of  the  living  trees.     These  too  are  symptomatic  of  a  change  of  climate. 


From  Askok'v  to  IMoksiss. 


185 


With  the  cool  of  the  evening  the  atmosphere  gradually  cleared,  but 
from  the  bottom  of  the  hole  where  we  were  we  could  only  get  glimpses 
through  the  openings  between  ice  and  mountain  side.  Night  came 
swiftly,  almost  without  twilight.  The  stones  fell  at  longer  intervals 
from  the  glacier  ;  the  rivulets  froze  over  and  stopped  flowing.  Soon  the 
silence  was  unbroken,  except  by  the  coolies,  who  scjuatted  and  murmured 
as  usual  round  the  fires  that  lighted  with  strange  gleams  the  walls  of  our 
prison. 


A   GLACLVL   LAKE   OF    THE    LOWER   BALTORO. 


On  the  following  morning  Abdullah,  instead  of  bringing  us  up  to  the 
glacier  again,  took  us  along  the  nari-ow  ravine  between  it  and  the  valley 
wall,  which  is  exposed  in  many  places  to  danger  from  falling  stones. 
Wherever  the  glacier  abutted  against  the  rock  we  climbed  over  it,  always 
redescending  as  soon  as  possible  into  tJie  ditch.  In  this  way  we  had 
but  brief  ghmpses  of  the  valley  or  of  its  clear  little  lakes,  whose  limpid 
emerald-green  waters  are  never  clouded  by  the  continually  dropping 
stones.  They  are  surrounded  by  high  ice-banks  hanging  down  in 
dazzling  white  stalactites  and  undermined  by  melting.  The  turrets 
of  the  northern  vallev  wall  made  a  wonderful  background  for  the  scene. 


l.stj 


CliH|)tL'r  \. 


After  over  an  hour's  march  we  reached  a  marginal  hike  some 
200  yards  long  and  from  5  to  10  yards  wide,  which  fills  up  the  gap 
between  the  glacier  and  the  rock.  It  appeared  to  be  confined  by  an 
ice-dam  of  no  great  thickness  or  strength.  If  this  slight  barrier  had 
given  way  before  the  pressure  of  the  waters  or  the  motion  of  the  glacier 


THE   LILIliO   GLVCIER 


our  camping  ground  of  the  night  before  would  have  proved  a  dangerous 
one  indeed.  It  is  certainly  far  more  prudent  to  encamp  upon  the  glacier 
rather  than  in  these  lateral  ravines.  The  Workmans  upon  the  Hispar 
witnessed  more  than  one  vast  and  violent  flood  caused  by  the  breaking 
of  glacial  reservoirs  ;  and  LongstafE  came  near  losing  his  camp  by  the 
same  cause  on  the  margin  of  the  Rgyong  glacier. 


I'irst   Camp  on   tlic   Baltdro,  between  Liligo  and   Rhobufsr 


From  Askoley  to  IMokass.  is? 

Another  half-hour's  march  brought  us  to  the  mouth  of  the  fiist 
tributary  valley  on  the  southern  side,  smaller  than  those  which  open  on 
the  northern  side  and  filled  up  by  the  Liligo  glacier.  The  latter  is  very 
broken,  without  surface  moraine,  and  barely  occupies  the  centre  of  its 
valley.  It  stops  about  a  third  of  a  mile  from  the  edge  of  the  Baltoro, 
with  a  steep  front  about  300  feet  high,  without  any  detritus  at  its  foot. 
Without  counting  the  little  hanging  glaciers  of  the  smaller  gulhes,  the 
Liligo  and  one  other  glacier  near  the  junction  of  the  Baltoro  with  the 
Godwin  Austen  are  the  only  tributaries  which  do  not  actually  flow  into 
the  mass  of  the  Baltoro.  The  LiHgo  valley  slopes  up  gently  from  the 
Baltoro  to  the  foot  of  a  rocky  height,  whose  structure  in  tiers  of  pyramids 
reminds  us  of  Paiju  Peak,  though  it  is  far  less  imposing.  The  valley 
then  bends  eastward  and  is  lost  to  view.  The  space  between  the  snout 
of  the  LiUgo  and  the  side  wall  of  the  Baltoro  is  partly  taken  up  by  a 
little  lake,  above  which  is  a  second  and  smaller  one.  Later  in  the  season 
the  two  lakes  flow  into  one  and  fill  up  the  whole  mouth  of  the  tributary 
valley.  Near  them  a  small  level  was  pointed  out  to  us  beside  the 
Baltoro  as  the  camping  ground  called  Rhobutse. 

We  were  now  marching  upon  the  glacier  again,  but  so  near  to  the 
left  margin  that  we  were  able  to  see  nothing  of  the  high  valley,  partly 
because  it  changes  its  north-easterly  direction  a  httle  farther  up  and 
takes  a  turn  due  east.  At  this  point  our  attention  was  chiefly  con- 
centrated upon  a  group  of  rocky  peaks  of  the  northern  chain.  Among 
them,  as  we  knew,  is  the  Mustagh  Tower,  but  it  was  as  yet  still  hidden 
among  the  minor  peaks,  and  only  much  later  were  its  noble  outlines 
revealed  to  us. 

The  distance  between  the  Liligo  glacier  and  the  second  confluent 
on  the  left  is  certainly  greater  than  appears  on  the  maps  of  Conway  and 
Guillarmod  (just  over  one  mile).  At  least  we  took  more  than  an  houi- 
and  a  half  to  cover  it.  This  second  tributary  is  nameless,  although 
its  dimensions  are  by  no  means  insignificant.  It  flows  down  from  a 
peak  of  dazzling  whiteness,  loaded  with  snow  despite  the  steepness  of  the 
slope,  and  it  flows  for  a  long  way  on  top  of  the  Baltoro,  so  that  our  route 
cut  straight  across  it.  It  is  almost  level,  without  crevasses,  and  dotted 
with  single  blocks  and  a  little  small  detritus.  Here  and  there  were 
groups  of  ice-tables  and  numerous  ice-cones,  the  pedestals  of  old  fallen 
tables.  There  were  none  of  these  upon  the  lower  Baltoro,  where  the 
uninterrupted  layer  of  detritus  causes  uniform  fusion  of  the  whole  surface. 


188  Chapter  \. 

We  now  (U'ossed  the  next  .s])ur,  skirting  its  slope  iilong  a  stretch  of 
track,  which  was  a  real  rest  after  the  long  march  across  the  moraine. 
Thence  we  reached  the  third  tributary  on  this  side  of  the  valley,  which, 
like  the  last,  has  no  name,  and  flows  over  the  surface  of  the  Baltoro 
for  a  considerable  distance.  We  had  nearly  reached  the  centre  of  this 
glacier  when  the  upper  part  of  the  Baltoro  valley  finally  unfolded  itself 
to  our  view,  as  far  as  the  distant  chain  containing  the  marvellous  and 
symmetrical  peak  of  Grasherbrum  '^ ,  26,000  feet  high.  To  its  right  a 
slender  and  more  distant  peak  is  just  visible,  quite  covered  with  snow. 
This  must  be  Gasherbruin  '".  just  a  little  higher  than  Gasheibrum'^ 
(26,090  feet). 

This  third  southern  confluent  opens  into  the  valley  op])osite  the  s])ur 
which  separates  the  third  fiom  the  fourth  northci'n  confluent,  or  the 
Dunge  glacier  from  the  Biale  glacier,  to  use  Guillarmod's  nomenclature. 
But  on  Guillarmod's  as  well  as  on  Conway's  maj)  the  valley  mouth  is 
placed  a  little  below  that  of  the  Dunge  glacier,  in  such  a  position  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  see  from  this  point  the  chain  of  the  Gasher- 
brums.  In  reality  the  mouth  of  the  valley  lies  much  nearer  the  point 
where  the  Baltoro  valley  turns  eastward,  and  to  the  promontory  of 
Rdokass,  which  one  reaches  from  it  in  only  three-quarters  of  an  houi-, 
with  a  short  crossing  under  the  mountain  side  and  skirting  a  recess 
filled  with  a  large  neve,  from  which  one  passes  directly  on  to  the  spur 
of  Rdokass.  1  Our  feet  were  bruised  and  sore  from  tlie  long  march 
over  hard  moraine,  and  it  was  a  great  ]elief  to  walk  on  the  soft  earth 
covered  with  elastic  grass.  The  cooKes  were  not  far  behind,  and  were 
nearly  all  in  camp  an  hour  after  our  ariival.  They  did  not  appear  to 
be  tired,  and  were  quite  in  their  usual  good  humour,  which  turned  to 
noisy  joy  when  the  Duke  added  to  the  usual  daily  ration  of  me.il  a 
present  of  tobacco,  tea  and  sugar. 

*  In  Conway's  and  Guillarmod's  maps  the  distance  Ijotween  Rdokass  and  tlic  third  left-hand 
tributary  is  over  three  miles,  which  on  such  a  surface  as  that  of  the  Baltoro  would  certainly  take 
at  least  two  hours'  march.  Ferber  had  already  (op.  cit.)  noted  this  discrepancy  between  the 
southern  and  northern  sides  of  the  Baltoro  in  Conway's  map.  For  the  rest  it  is  a  fairly  accurate 
map,  and  a  truly  remarkable  piece  of  work  to  have  been  produced  by  a  short  month's  work  on 
the  Baltoro,  and  considering  that  it  represents  only  a  part  of  the  vast  glacial  system  explored 
by  Conway  in  a  single  campaign. 


TliL'    Halloro 


<)ii>llj;H    oil!" 


CHAPTER  XI. 


RDOKASS. 

Rdokass  as  a  Base  Camp. — The  Tiinljir  Limit. —  The  Permanent  Coolies.  —  How  Chupatti.s 
are  made.  —  Equipment  of  the  Expedition. — The  Meteorological  Station  at  Rdokass. — 
Panorama  of  the  Baltoro  from  above  Rtlokas.'!.  —  Size  and  Appearance  of  the  (Jlacier. — 
Its  Triljutaries.  —  Various  Sj'stems  of  Nomenclature.  —  Mustagh  tilacier  and  Pa.ss.  —  The 
Younghusband  and  Ferber  Expedition.^.  —  Two  Days  of  Bad  Weather.  —  Goats,  Sheep  and 
Coolies.  — The  Fauna  of  Rdokass.  —  Measurements  of  the  Rate  of  Flow  of  the  Baltoro.  — 
Preparations  for  the  Start. 


The  Duke's  plan,  which  he 
had  worked  out  to  the 
smallest  detail,  was  to  leave 
a  base  camp  at  Rdokass, 
with  supplies  of  food  and 
other  stores,  and  to  form  an 
advanced  base  camp  on  the 
Godwin  Austen  glacier  at  the 
foot  of  K-.  Mr.  Baines  was 
left  in  charge  of  the  Rdokass 
station,  with  the  important 
duties  of  provisioning  the 
high  camp  and  communicat- 
ing with  Askoloy  when  needful.  It  was,  therefore,  necessary  for  him 
to  have  at  his  disposal  enough  coolies  to  keep  him  constantly  in  touch 
with  the  expedition.  The  t;isk  involved  both  responsibility  and 
sacrifice,  and  Mr.  Baines  showed  great  ability  and  punctuality  in  the 
performance  of  it. 

Rdokass  lies  on  the  western  slope  of  a  great  spur  belonging  to  the 
southern  chain  of  the  Baltoro,  about  300  feet  above  the  glacier  and 
some  10  miles  from  its  end.  It  is  a  place  which  lends  itself  wonderfully 
to  a  long  stay  with  a  sufficient  number  of  coolies.  The  camping  ground 
was  covered  with  dry  grass  from  the  previous  year,  through  which  new 


1»U 


riiiipkT  XI. 


blades  were  pusliing  their  way,  as  well  as  here  and  there  the  first  tiny 
blue  stars  of  the  early  primula.  A  heavy  landsUde  had  at  some  past 
time  covered  the  slope  with  gigantic  blocks  of  granite,  some  of  them 
as  big  as  houses,  which  were  piled  up  in  confusion,  leaning  at  all  possible 
angles,  and  forming  in  their  interstices  nooks  and  cavei-ns  large  enough 
to  afford  shelter  to  hundreds  of  coolies. 


THE    CAMT   AT    KDOKASS. 


Our  tents  were  set  up  on  a  narrow  level  space,  while  a  similar  ledge 
farther  down  held  those  of  the  guides  and  the  Idtclien.  A  stream  ran 
close  by  through  a  little  vale  covered  with  tliick  underbrush  which 
yielded  us  abundant  fuel.  It  consisted  of  a  species  of  lonicera,  which 
only  grows  six  or  eight  feet  high  and  is  apparently  the  shrub  found  at 
the  greatest  height  in  the  Baltoro  basin.  The  grass  runs  up  about 
1,000  feet  higher,  and  later  on  we  found  saxifrage  and  potentilla  in 
blossom  at  about  18,000  feet.  But  the  woody  growth  apparently  stops 
at  about  13,200  feet,  though  Conway  and  the  Workmans  found  speci- 
mens at  from  14,500  to  15,000  feet  on  the  slopes  of  the  Hispar  in  the 
shape  of  dwarf  willows,  not  much  more  than  a  foot  high. 


Kdokass.  lit] 

The  Duke  liacl  planned  to  stop  only  one  day  at  Rdokass  to  make 
the  arrangements  for  supplies,  etc.,  and  then  to  start  ahead  with 
a  small  party  to  select  the  best  place  for  the  high  camp,  the  rest  of  the 
expedition  following  the  next  day  with  the  heavy  baggage  and  supplies. 
About  half  of  the  coolies  who  came  with  us  to  Askoley  were  to  help 
carry  the  luggage  to  the  upper  camp  ;  they  were  then  to  be  sent  back 
with  the  exception  of  thirty-five- — ten  for  the  use  of  the  expedition  on 
the  high  glaciers  and  twenty-five  to  remain  under  Mr.  Baines'  orders 
at  the  Rdokass  base  camp. 

Our  first  task,  therefore,  was  to  select  thirty-five  volunteers  among 
the  yoimger  and  stronger  coolies,  who  should  remain  with  us  until  our 
return  to  Askoley.  We  had  no  difficulty  in  finding  them,  for  they 
were  all  equally  anxious  to  stay.  We  next  proceeded  to  equip  the 
ten  who  were  to  be  with  us  in  the  high  mountains.  First,  we  made 
sure  that  each  of  them  was  provided  with  the  usual  native  garments 
in  good  condition — tunic,  trousers,  blanket  and  puttees.  To  these 
we  added  heavy  woollen  socks,  nailed  boots,  snow  spectacles  and  sheep- 
skin sleeping-bags,  and  three  tents  were  allotted  to  the  party  of  ten. 
Later  on  we  distributed  puttoo  mittens,  roughly  made  but  very  sei-vice- 
able.  The  mere  sight  of  all  this  wealth  filled  the  coolies  with  joy, 
particularly  the  Euroi)ean  boots,  which  were  looked  upon  enviously 
by  those  not  among  the  fortunate  ten.  The  coolies  who  formed  the 
Rdokass  contingent  were  furnished  with  the  native  sheepskin  boots 
known  as  pabboos,  which  are  excellent  for  walking  over  rocks  and 
moraine.  The  Duke  had  had  several  hundred  pairs  of  these  made,  for 
they  do  not  last  long  in  the  wear  and  tear  of  moraine  work.  We 
carried  also  a  supply  of  skins,  awls  and  cobbler's  thread  to  mend  them 
with. 

Meantime  the  coolies  had  built  little  fires  along  the  stream,  and  were 
busily  preparing  and  baking  a  supply  of  chupattis  large  enough  to  last 
for  the  next  few  days.  The  meal  is  coarse  and  grey.  It  is  simply 
kneaded  with  water  without  leaven,  and  shaped  into  flat  cakes.  Some 
of  these,  intended  for  immediate  consumption,  were  baked  by  wrapping 
them  around  a  red-hot  pebble  and  then  rolhng  the  pebble  over  a  slab 
of  hot  stone.  The  rest,  which  were  to  be  carried  as  supplies,  were  baked 
on  big  iron  plates.  The  daily  ration  of  a  Balti  is  one  seer  (about  two  lbs.) 
of  coarse  meal,  counting  a  good  deal  of  bran,  and  a  Httle  salt,  nothing 
more.     Now  and  again  as  a  special  reward  a  little  tea,  sugar  or  tobacco 


192 


(IliipttT    XI. 


was  served  out  to  them.  1  know  of  no  otlier  human  race  capable  of  an 
equal  amount  of  work  in  such  a  severe  climate,  upon  nourishment  so 
poor  in  quality  and  meagre  in  quantity. 

We  next  paid  off  and  sent  back  the  200  coolies  who  were  no  longer 
needed.  Each  of  them  was  entitled  to  21  rupees,  beside  two  seers  of 
meal  for  the  return  journey  ;    and  tliey  were  told  that  the  meal  would 


COOKING   CHUPATTIS. 


be  served  out  to  them  as  soon  as  they  had  been  paid.  But  finding 
themselves  in  possession  of  so  vast  a  sum  they  were  so  eager  to  get 
home  that  they  all  rushed  off  joyously  without  stopping  for  the  meal 
before  w^e  were  aware  of  their  going,  busy  as  we  were  in  paying  out  the 
wages.  The  result  was  that  the  800  lbs.  of  meal  went  to  swell  our  stock. 
We  still  had  more  than  150  coolies  to  carry  our  equipment  and 
supplies  to  the  foot  of  K-.  The  baggage  was  first  gathered  together: 
the  Alpine  equipment,  consisting  of  extra  ice-axes,  a  large  supply  of 
mountaineering  rope,  crampons,  snow-shoes  and  iron  spikes  for  the 
rocks  ;  the  topographical  instruments — photogranunetric  camera  and 
plates,  and  compasses ;  the  meteorological  instruments — mercury 
barometers,  aneroids,  hypsometers   and   thermometers  ;     lastly,   Sella 's 


Rdokass.  193 

photogi'a2:)hic  equipment,  except  the  cinematograph,  which  was  left 
behind  at  Rdokass.  We  also  left  our  camp-beds,  and  from  now  on 
spread  om'  sleeping-bags  on  the  floor  of  the  tent.  Few  people  know 
that  it  is  warmer  to  lie  directly  on  the  waterproof  bottom  of  the  tent, 
even  when  it  is  set  up  on  snow  or  ice,  than  on  a  camp  bedstead  which 
leaves  a  perpetually  chilly  void  between  you  and  the  groimd.  Our 
sleeping-bags,  which  had  been  specially  planned  by  the  Duke,  were 
admirably  fitted  for  a  journey  on  which  every  variety  of  chmate  was 
to  be  encountered.  They  consisted  of  four  bags,  wliich  could  be  used 
separately  or  one  inside  the  other.  One  was  of  light  soft  camel's  hair, 
one  of  eiderdown,  one  of  thick  goatskin  with  a  woollen  covering,  and 
one  of  waterproof  canvas,  to  be  put  outside  the  other  three. 

Our  cooking  apparatus  was  aluminium,  and  we  used  Primus  paraffin 
stoves.^  The  food  and  stores  were  soldered  up  in  tins,  each  one 
weighing  about  46  lbs.  and  containing  all  the  necessaries  of  life  for  a 
single  day.-  A  Ught  wooden  case  protected  these  tins  from  blows,  and 
the  coolies  carried  them  with  such  care  that  they  all  reached  Rdokass 
intact. 

We  carried  to  the  high  camp  the  same  tropical  tents  we  had  used 
up  till  now,  of  green  Edgington  canvas,  small  size.  The  Duke  had  also 
provided  two  Whymper  tents  and  two  extra  Hght  Mimimery  tents  for 
the  camps  in  the  high  glacial  basins  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains. 
Our  stores  were  completed  by  a  box  of  medical  and  surgical  necessaries 
and  two  big  tarpaulins  to  protect  our  supplies  from  the  weather. 

We  levelled  the  ground  under  a  projecting  rock  and  arranged  in 
systematic  order  all  the  suppHes  that  were  to  be  left  at  Rdokass. 
Around  the  whole  the  cooHes  built  a  wall.  They  worked  quickly  and 
ingeniously,  forming  a  chain  between  the  rock  and  the  nearest  point 
where  suitable  stones  were  to  be  had,  and  passing  material  from  hand 
to  hand,  so  that  there  was  no  pause  in  the  building  operations,  and 
the  wall  was  soon  finished. 

Lastly,  the  Duke  set  up  a  meteorological  station  in  the  shelter  of  a 
rock  flanked  by  a  wall  on  either  side,  and  supphed  it  with  a  mercury 
barometer,  thermometer  and  psichrometer.     Readings  were  taken  by 

'  At  altitudes  o£  17,000  feet  and  over  the  low  temperature  and  the  rarefaction  of  the  air 
prevents  the  easy  combustion  of  ordinary  spirits  of  wine.  It  is  necessary  to  have  absolute  alcohol, 
or  at  least  96  per  cent.,  to  start  the  Primus  lamps  and  the  little  lamp  of  the  hypsometer. 

'  In  Chapter  XIX  I  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  composition  of  the  daily  ration. 
(!Ji>i'l)  s 


194 


diaptcT   XI. 


Mr.  Bailies  three  times  a  day  from  May  29tli  to  July  loth,  and  ;it  the 
same  hours  observations  were  made  at  Leh,  Skaidu,  Gilgit  and  Siinagai-. 
The  calculations  based  on  these  data  give  Rdokass  an  altitude  of 
13,205  feet.^  It  thus  became  a  station  of  reference  for  the  calculation 
of  the  Duke's  observations  in  the  high  mountains  during  this  period. 

We  had  now  reached  more  than  13,000  feet  above  sea  level,  without 
experiencing   any  symptom  of  suffering   from   altitude.     We   all  slept 


[^.•'' 


r.VIJU    PEAK   AND    THE    LOWER    BALTORO   FROM    RDOK^VSS. 


soundly,  and  our  appetites  were  excellent.  Some  of  us,  however,  noted 
even  at  this  early  period  that  when  we  stooped  down  to  tie  our  shoes 
or  wind  oui:  puttees,  for  instance,  we  would  be  caught  by  a  slight  sense 
of  oppression  on  standing  up  again,  and  obliged  to  take  four  or  five  deep 
breaths.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  walk  uphill  as  fast  as  in  the 
lower  regions  without  some  shortness  of  breath,  but  I  can  hardly  count 
this  as  a  symptom  of  mountain  sickness. 

The  grassy  slope  of  Rdokass  ends  some  300  feet  above  the  camping 
place  with  a  little  level  terrace,  from  which  springs  the  real  wall  of  the 

'  The  meteorological  appendix  by  Professor  D.  Omodei  gives  the  results  of  these  observations 
and  the  data  for  the  altimctric  calculations.  This  makes  it  supei-fluous  for  me  to  discuss  the 
altitude  of  13,904  feet  attributed  by  Guillarmod  to  Rdokass. 


Tramgo  GL*) 


•  After  GuilUriDod 


Lower  end  of  the  Baltoro  Glacier 


3 


O 


IJdokass.  195 

valley,  all  of  rock  still  covered  with  ice  and  .snow.  This  terrace  gives 
a  fine  outlook  over  the  whole  lower  course  of  the  Baltoro  which  we  have 
just  traversed.  But,  like  the  camp,  it  lies  on  the  western  side  of  the 
spur  behind  a  big  ridge,  which  cuts  oft'  tlie  view  of  the  upper  Baltoro. 
To  obtain  a  sight  of  the  whole  marvellous  valley  in  its  incomparable 
grandeur  you  must  cHmb  much  higher  behind  Edokass,  to  the  corniced 
ridge  of  snow  which  terminates  the  wall  about  3,000  feet  above  the 
glacier.  It  was  from  this  point,  on  our  return,  that  Sella  made 
panorama  B,  which  shows  25  miles  of  the  Baltoro  glacier,  from  the  foot 
of  the  Gasherbrum  down  to  a  point  quite  close  to  the  snout. 

The  Baltoro  is  the  fifth  of  the  great  glaciers  of  the  world  outside 
the  Arctic  regions.  The  distance  from  its  snout  to  the  foot  of  Hidden 
Peak  is  36  miles.  The  Siachen  (or  Saichar)  glacier  is  45  miles  long 
(Longstaff),  the  Inylchek  (of  the  Tian  Shan  range,  north  of  the  Kara- 
koram)  is  44  miles  (Merzbacher),  and  the  Biafo  is  nearly  37  miles 
(Workman).  The  Hispar  is  about  the  same  length  as  the  Baltoro — just 
above  36  miles  (Workman).  No  other  known  glacier  reaches  30  miles. 
In  fact,  the  largest  glacier  of  the  Himalaya  proper — the  Zemu,  of  the 
Kinchinjunga  group — is  only  16  miles  long  (Freshfield)  ;  but  the  Nepaul 
Himalaya  and  the  Everest  group  may  have  surprises  in  store. 

The  Baltoro  ascends  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  Gasherbrum  in  an 
almost  straight  line,  with  an  even  regular  slope  fi'om  11,000  to 
15,700  feet,  giving  a  grade  of  barely  3 J  per  cent.,  and  a  uniform  width 
of  about  two  miles,  which  makes  it  look  from  a  distance  like  an  immense 
highroad.  Godwin  Austen  wrote  that  it  is  as  if  a  great  glacier  filled  up 
the  Val  d'Aosta  from  Mont  Blanc  to  Chatillon,  or  flowed  down  from 
the  Simplon  to  Lago  Maggiore  through  the  Valle  del  Toce.  But  even  if 
we  could  imagine  such  a  sight,  it  would  not  much  resemble  the  Baltoro. 
No  Alpine  valley  has  the  elements  of  anything  even  remotely  similar 
to  this  vast  roadway  of  ice  between  its  precipitous  walls.  It  is  beyond 
all  comparison  ;  it  differs  from  all  Alpine  scenery  not  merely  in  the 
scale,  but  in  the  actual  form  and  features. 

Our  attention  was  drawn  from  the  Baltoro  to  fix  itself  upon  the  wild 
rampart  to  the  north,  dominated  by  a  forest  of  unnumbered  peaks  that 
are  between  20,000  and  23,000  feet  high  and  show  a  fanta.stic  variety 
of  form  and  structure.  Not  until  the  clouds  descended  and  lay  motionless 
over  the  high  peaks  did  we  return  to  the  observation  of  the  valley  and  its 
tributaries. 

(;)221)  N  2 


196  Chapter  XI. 

The  Baltoro  seen  from  above  is  chiefly  of  a  uiiifoim  grey  colour,  due 
to  the  detritus  which  covers  it.  Only  higher  up  do  the  moraines  become 
separated  and  distinct.  The  centre  is  marked,  however,  by  a  tall 
moraine  ridge  running  lengthwise  and  shghtly  sinuous,  which  lends  the 
semblance  of  organic  structure  to  the  glacier,  making  it  look  like  some 
monstrous  vertebrate  crouching  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  whose 
outUne  it  follows  with  its  full  and  rounded  flanks.  Here  and  there 
pale  streaks  of  limestone  in  the  moraine,  or  a  gleam  of  ice  like  the  glint 
upon  shining  scales,  completes  the  imaginary  likeness  to  a  dragon  of 
fable.  Unlike  the  Hispar  and  the  Biafo,  which  are  shnmk  within  the 
walls  of  their  valleys,  not  even  extending  to  their  own  ancient  marginal 
moraines,  the  Baltoro  fills  its  bed  completely,  as  may  be  seen  fi'om 
panorama  B.  But  what  gives  it  its  most  characteristic  feature  and 
makes  it  absolutely  unlike  our  own  valleys  is  the  appearance  of  the  side 
spurs,  which  do  not  slope  down  to  the  valley  with  ridges  and  diminishing 
buttresses,  but  come  to  an  end  suddenly,  as  if  they  had  been  cut  off, 
with  Avide  and  high  perpendicular  walls.  Between  these  spurs  open  at 
regular  intervals  tributary  valleys  five  or  six  miles  long,  also  deeply  set 
between  vertical  walls  and  forming  almost  a  right  angle  with  the  main 
valley,  like  streets  opening  between  blocks  of  buildings  on  either  side 
of  the  main  thoroughfare  of  a  city.  The  glaciers  of  all  these  tributary 
valleys  flow  out  on  top  of  the  Baltoro  with  a  high  front  and  without 
any  trace  of  terminal  moraine.  They  certainly  give  the  impression  of 
being  in  a  state  of  active  growth. 

Conway  gathered  names  from  the  natives  for  most  of  these  tributary 
glaciers.  Guillarmod  made  further  inquiry,  and  changed  the  names 
about  from  one  glacier  to  another,  adding  new  ones.  Ferber  kept  these 
names  for  the  glaciers,  but  added  others  for  the  valleys  down  which 
they  run.  The  Workmans,  too,  rearranged  or  changed  the  names  given 
by  Conway  to  the  confluents  of  the  Hispar  glacier.  Probably  every 
voyager  to  these  regions  at  intervals  of  a  few  years  could  collect  data 
for  fiirther  changes.  It  is  evidently  not  alone  in  the  inhabited  jiortions 
of  Baltistan  that  the  names  of  valleys  and  rivers  change.  It  is  to  the 
interest  of  the  geographer  to  estabhsh  a  fixed  nomenclature — he  cannot 
be  expected  to  conform  with  capricious  changes.  The  Duke  has  adopted 
in  his  map  the  nomenclatm'e  of  Guillarmod,  as  being  simpler  than  that 
of  Ferber.  The  followaug  comparative  table  shows  the  names  given 
by  different  travellers  to  the  same  places,  and  at  the  same  time  gives 


Rdokass. 


197 


a  list  of  the  confluents  of  the  Baltoro  in  their  order  from  the  snout  to 
the  Concordia  basin.  The  northern  tributaries  are  all  shown  in 
panorama  B  except  the  lowest,  the  Uli  Biaho  of  Guillarmod. 


Tributary  Glaciers  of  the  Baltoro  from  its  Lower  Exd 
TO  the  Coxcordia  Amphitheatre. 


List  of  glaciers  going 
up  the  valley. 

Conway  1892. 

Guillarmod  1902. 

Ferber  1903. 

Right  or  Northern  Side. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

Uli  Biaho 

Dunge    

Durni 

Piale  

Uli  Biaho 

—              Valley  Uli  Biaho 
GL  Uh  Biaho.          „      Tranhonge 
„    Dunge   ...          „      Talve 
,,   Durni    ...          „      Piale 
„   Piale ,      Mustagh 

Tramo^o 

Biale  

Mustagh    

Next  follow  three  small  secondary  valleys  between  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Mustagh 
Tower.     Only  the  middle  one  has  a  glacier  that  runs  down  as  far  as  the  Baltoro. 

6 

Younghusband     ...1  Younghusband    ...|                            

Five  more  small  secondary  affluents. 

Left  or  Southern  Side. 

I 
2 

:j 

4 

Liligua  

Mundu  

Stachikyunt^'me 

Liligo 

Gl.  Liligua.    Valley  Chober  Zechen 

—  „      Chober  Zechen 

Germi 

—  „      Choblak 

YprmnnpiHln. 

(Jroup  of  sec 

ondary  affluents. 

6&7 

1  Two  very  large  unnamed  affluents. 

Rdokass  stands  opposite  the  Biale,  the  fomth  confluent  on  the  right 
bank,  a  secondary  glacier  filling  a  steep  gorge  carved  out  on  the  face 
of  a  spur  (see  panorama  B).  A  little  beyond  is  the  mouth  of  an 
important  valley  filled  by  the  Mustagh  glacier,  which  runs  deep  up  into 
the  chain  to  the  ancient  pass  of  the  same  name,  19,000  feet  high,  over 
which  Askoley  used  to  communicate  vnth  Yarkand.  The  pass  seems 
to  have  been  in  use  in  early  times — Ujfalvy  states  that  the  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  D'Espiuaha,  crossed  it  in  1760.  According  to  Vigne,  it  was  still 
open  mider  Ahmed  Shah,  the  last  independent  Rajah  of  Skardu  in  the 
first  half  of  the  last  century.  But  when  Godwin  Austen  went  to  Askoley 
and  the  Baltoro  in  1861  it  was  said  to  have  become  impracticable,  owing 
to  great  accumulations  of  snow  and  ice. 


o 
(9221) 


N  3 


I'.m 


('li;il)tfr   \I. 


We  owe  our  first  detailed  account  of  the  route  across  the  pass  to 
Colonel  Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  who  traversed  it  at  the  end  of  1887.' 
He  was  on  his  way  from  Kashgar,  which  he  had  reached  aftei-  crossing 
the  whole  of  China  ;  and  he  started  over  the  Karakoram  with  a  few 
coolies,  no  tent,  a  single  sleeping-bag,  a  fur  coat  apiece,  and  a  scanty 
su})ply  of  dried  provisions.     He  ascended  to  the  top  of  the  pass  by  the 


Ml'STACiH   PASS. 


MUSTACH    TOWKK. 


MUSTAtiH    TOWKR    AN'D    PASS    FROM    THK    KOCKS    ABOVE    RDOKASS. 

gentle  slope  of  the  Sarpo  Laggo  glacier,  which  was  deep  in  soft  snow, 
and  descended  on  the  Baltoro  side  by  a  steep  and  broken  ice  wall,  a 
proceeding  both  difficult  and  dangerous  for  a  party  lacking  the  simplest 
mountaineering  equipment.  The  condition  of  the  glaciers  more  than 
justified  the  abandonment  of  this  pass.  A.  C.  F.  Ferber  climbed 
up  to  the  Mustagh  col  with  E.  Honigmann  in  (September,  1903,  and 
collected  some  interesting  indications  of  active  coining  and  going  across 


'  Col.  Sir  F.  Youxohusband.  A  Journey  rirross  Centrul  Asia,  etc.     Proc.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  N.S. 
10,  1888,  p.  485  :   and  The  Heart  of  a  Conlinenl.  etc.     London  1904.     4th  ed. 


Rdokass.  199 

it  in  the  past.  ^  Upon  a  grassy  slope  near  the  Mustagli  glacier  he  found 
a  village  of  twenty-two  huts,  abandoned  and  in  ruins,  one  of  which 
contained  a  tomb.  There  were  clear  traces  of  camping  grounds,  and 
even  an  artificially  levelled  spot  called  Sharagan,  800  feet  long  by 
160  feet  wide,  which  had  once  been  used  for  polo  matches,  presumably 
on  foot,  between  the  Baltis  and  Yarkandis.-  Ferber  also  brought  back 
from  his  expedition  a  topographical  sketch  of  the  Mustagh  glacier  and 
pass,  whose  position  had  heretofore  been  only  vaguely  noted  on  the 
map. 

Oil  the  day  following  oui'  arrival  at  Rdokass,  after  a  brilHant 
morning,  the  sky  clouded  over  little  by  little — at  fijst  with  only  a  thin 
veil ;  then  sleet  began  to  fall,  growing  thicker  and  thicker,  until  it 
settled  down  into  a  heavy  snowfall.  The  aspect  of  the  glacier  changed 
utterly.  The  tall  central  moraine  ridge,  with  its  notched  crest,  remained 
c[uite  black,  owing  to  radiation  from  the  thick  strata  of  detritus  ;  but 
on  both  sides  the  glacier  grew  white  as  far  as  the  marginal  moraines, 
where  again  the  snow  melted  as  it  fell.  A  clear  distinction  was  thus 
drawn  between  principal  and  secondary  moraines. 

It  was  useless  to  think  of  starting  on  May  21st,  with  fresh  snow 
lying  a  hand's-breadth  deep  on  the  Baltoro.  Even  had  it  been  possible 
to  induce  the  coolies  to  move,  we  could  not  have  gone  far  over  ground 
so  treacherous,  even  when  uncovered,  that  you  risk  a  fall  with  every 
step.  The  snow  continued  to  fall,  but  no  longer  so  heavily  ;  and  later 
on  the  sun  showed  for  a  few  hours,  feeble  and  veiled  Init  sufficiently 
powerful  to  melt  most  of  the  fresh  snow. 

During  the  day  Botta  was  taken  with  chills  and  fever.  It  was  a 
passing  illness,  and  gave  way  to  salicylic  treatment  within  twenty-four 
hours.  The  sheep  and  goats  were  now  straggling  into  camp,  worn  out 
with   lieing  driven  for  three  days  without  food.     They  greedily  began 

'  A.  C.  F.  Fekber  (bi-sido  tlic  article  cited  from  tin-  Oeotj.  Jour.),  sec  Die  Krhindung  des 
Miistaghpusses,  etc.,  in  Zeit.  d.  dent.  %i.  oest.  Alpenver.  vol.  3(i.  1!K)5,  and  Boll,  del  Club  Alp.  Hal. 
vol.  38,  1906,  p.  319. 

"  These  discoveries  of  Ferber  are  interesting  because  they  seem  to  pi-ove  that  the  Mustagh 
was  once  a  familiar  and  regularly  used  route,  despite  the  fear  of  the  glaciers  displa}'cd  by  the 
natives  who  live  at  their  foot.  Stein  tliinks  that  only  troublous  times  of  war  and  danger  from 
enemies  could  have  induced  them  to  risk  their  lives  on  the  glaciers  (see  the  diseu.s.-iion  after 
Longstaft's  lecture.  The  Baltoro  Bass,  printed  in  Alp.  Jour.  25,  1911,  p.  670).  Longstaff  agrees 
with  Stein  that  the  glacier  routes  were  more  probably  used  by  war  refugees  and  messengers, 
in  times  of  hostile  invasion,  instead  of  for  trade  purposes,  and  were  abandoned  with  the  return 
of  peace. 

(9-2-21)  N  4 


200 


Chapter  XL 


to  nibble  the  dry  grass  that  stuck  out  here  and  there  through  the  snow. 
During  the  day  we  finished  all  our  arrangements  for  the  base  camp. 

The  coolies  enjoyed  the  unexpected  rest,  huddled  in  their  dens  as 
thick  as  rabbits  in  a  warren.  They  swarmed  in  every  chink  and  hollow 
among  the  rocks.  We  discovered  that  they  made  as  many  separate 
little  camps  as  there  were  villages  from  which  they  came,  but  evidently 


THE    SHIKARI   ABDULLAH    (ON    THE    LEFT),    THE   WAZIR   OF    SHICAR    (cEXTRE)    AND    THREE 

CHUPRASSIS 


not  owing  to  any  hostiUty  between  these  communities,  for  their  relations 
were  unbroken  and  seemed  very  cordial.  The  variety  of  anthropo- 
logical tvpes  is  striking.  By  far  the  gi'eater  number  are  dark,  but  a 
few  are  blond,  occasionally  even  red-haired.  Some  are  absolutely 
smooth-faced,  others  have  thick  beards.  One  would  say  that  the  Italic 
types  prevailed — characteristic  Lombard  heads,  the  full  and  somewhat 
hea^'7  features  of  certain  portrait  busts  of  Roman  anticj^uity,  and  most 
marked  of  all,  the  type,  by  no  means  uncommon,  of  the  Florentine  j^age 
of  the  trecento,  with  a  face  that  agrees  very  well  with  the  fringe  of  long 
hair  hanging  all  round  the  head.     One  sees  sometimes  a  group  positively 


Sunset.     Taken   from   the  rocks  above   Kdokass 


i'.i'.trAi>l>'/l   avo'lii  H/lxn  -jdl  rnoit   ti'j^lnT     .Joannrl 


r  '■ 


Rdokass.  201 

Biblical  in  appearance — figures  draped  in  white  blankets,  with  the  head 
swathed  in  a  narrow  piece  of  the  same  stuff,  the  ends  hanging  down  the 
back,  and  faces  of  a  Semitic  cast.  Again,  one  notices  a  plainly  Mongol 
type,  with  the  characteristic  oblique  eyes  and  prominent  cheekbones. 
Many  of  them  while  busy  baking  the  chupattis  took  off  nearly  all  their 
clothes,  with  complete  indifference  to  the  snow  which  fell  on  their  backs. 
They  almost  always  go  about  barefoot. 

Rdokass  has  abundant  animal  life,  notwithstanding  its  altitude  of 
over  13,000  feet  and  its  situation  among  the  glaciers.  Small  rodents 
about  the  size  of  guinea-pigs,  with  long  light  grey  hair  and  round  erect 
ears,  start  up  in  every  direction  and  hide  away  under  the  stones.^ 
Small  birds  hop  about  the  tents,  and  flights  of  ash-grey  pigeons  with 
black  heads  pass  above  us.  Not  far  from  the  camp  flocks  of  some  bird 
of  the  genus  fosser  chirp  about  on  the  turf.  They  are  the  size  of 
blackbirds,  grey  and  dark  green  in  colour  with  a  black  throat.  From 
the  near-by  bushes  we  hear  the  call  of  the  giant  partridge  or  ram  chikor, 
and  every  level  spot  on  the  mountain  side  is  full  of  the  prints  of  ibexes. 
The  arrival  of  so  large  a  party  and  the  smell  of  smoke  had  frightened 
them  all  off  to  a  distance.  Along  the  margins  of  the  glacier  nearly 
up  to  the  Concordia  we  found  remains  of  ibexes  which  had  fallen  victim 
to  avalanches  or  to  the  snow  leopard.  ^ 

The  brief  interval  of  simshine  proved  a  deceiving  prophecy.  The 
snow  came  on  again  in  the  night,  so  heavily  that  by  the  morning  of 
May  22nd  the  whole  scene  had  become  absolutely  wintry,  and  the  Duke 
was  obliged  to  give  up  another  day.  It  did  not  turn  out  to  be  altogether 
lost  time,  for  Sella,  with  the  guides  and  a  few  cooUes,  went  down  to 
the  Baltoro  and  crossed  it  to  the  central  moraine  ridge,  where  they 
set  up  a  large  stone  pyramid.  Meantime  Negrotto  with  his  graduated 
staff  and  tacheometer  had  measured  out  along  the  slojje  an  accurate 
base  line  of  about  300  feet,  from  either  end  of  which  he  took  the 
angles  to  the  apex  of  the  pyramid.  When  we  got  back  to  Rdokass  on 
July  23rd  he  repeated  these  observations.  The  pyramid  had  somewhat 
gone  to  pieces,  but  was  still  easily  recognizable,  and  from  his  data 
Negrotto  ascertained  that  it  had  moved  361  feet  down  the  glacier  during 

'  They  are  probably  little  animals  of  the  genus  ocholona,  and  have  been  obsen"cd  iu  other 
places.     Longstaff  sajs  the  natives  call  thcni  shippi,  or  whisperers. 

'  Pbof.  Camerano  has  published  a  monograph  on  the  ibex  horns  brought  back  by  the 
expedition  {Osservazioni  suUo  slanibecco  del  Baltoro,  etc.  Aiti  R.  Ace.  deUe  Scienze  di  Torino, 
vol.  46,  Feb.  1911). 


202  Chapter  XI. 

the  interval  of  sixty-two  days.  Thi.s  gives  a  notable  average  daily 
speed  of  nearly  5  feet  10  inches  for  the  central  stream  of  the  Baltoro 
10  miles  from  its  snout.  If  tliis  rate  were  kept  up,  it  would  result  in  a 
progress  of  2,124  feet  a  year ;  but  in  reality  it  mast  be  less,  for  we  know- 
that  the  current  is  slower  in  winter  than  in  summer.  Observations  on 
the  speed  of  the  current  in  Himalayan  glaciers  have  been  very  scanty 
up  to  the  present.  R.  Strachey  gives  some  measurements  taken  in  the 
Kumaun-Gahrwal  group,  where  the  glaciers  are  nearer  those  of  our 
own  Alps  in  size.  They  move  much  more  slowly  than  the  Baltoro.  At 
the  centre  of  the  glacier  which  forms  the  source  of  the  Pindi — a  con- 
fluent of  the  Ganges — an  average  advance  of  9h  inches  in  twenty-four 
hours  was  observed  in  May,  and  from  May  21st  to  October  loth  the 
same  glacier  moved  98  "57  feet,  giving  an  average  of  8  inches  a  day. 
It  flows  down  to  11,900  feet.  Another  glacier,  the  Gori,  which  flows 
down  to  11,500  feet,  covered  37*92  feet  between  August  2nd  and 
September  30th,  an  average  of  14^  inches  a  day.^  Mr.  Hewett,  nii 
English  topographer  who  was  with  the  Workmans  on  the  Chogo  Lungma, 
took  various  measurements  of  the  rate  of  the  latter  at  two  points  15 
and  18  miles  from  the  snout,  by  observing  various  points  of  the  surface 
at  different  distances  from  the  two  stations.  His  resiilts  varied  con- 
siderably for  the  different  points.  However,  the  highest  speeds  which 
he  observed — namely,  3  "08,  3  "16  and  3  "29  feet  in  twenty-four  hours — 
may  be  compared  with  Negrotto's  results  on  the  Baltoro,  taking  into 
account  the  difference  in  volume  between  the  two  glaciers.  On  the 
other  hand,  on  the  Hoh  Luml)a,  a  much  smaller  glacier,  which  runs 
down  to  the  north  of  the  Braldoh  valley,  the  Workmans  found  a  mean 
velocity  of  about  "26  feet  in  twenty-foui'  hours,  at  a  point  where  the 
inclination  is  barely  2°  32'.  It  looks  as  though  the  giant  glaciers  of  the 
Karakoram  flowed  at  a  much  higher  speed  than  the  ordinary  Alpine 
glacier,  and,  of  course,  it  would  be  reasonable  to  expect  that,  other 
conditions  being  equal,  a  certain  relation  should  exist  between  mass 
and  velocity.-  Let  us  hope  that  these  observations  may  soon  be  taken 
on  the  other  great  glaciers  of  the  region. 

*  R.  Strachey,  On  the  Physical  Oeography  of    the  Provinces  of  Kumaun  and  Gahrwal,  etc. 
Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  21,  1851,  p.  57. 

'  In  the  Grumhiige  der  Phtjsischen  Erdkumk  {A.  SrPAN",  Loi])sic  1011,  5th  ed.,  p.  197)  the 
author  says  "  The  giant  glaciers  of  the  Himalaya  move  much  more  rapidly  (than  the  Alpine  ones), 
with  a  speed  which  in  the  summer  reaches  2-3  up  to  7  metres,"  etc. 


lidokass.  203 

Toward  evening  the  weather  showed  symptoms  of  clearing,  and 
the  Duke  had  everything  prepared  for  a  start  on  the  following  morning 
— not  in  two  parties,  according  to  the  original  plan,  but  all  together. 
Mr.  Baines,  who  was  anxious  to  get  a  glimpse  of  K-  before  shutting 
himself  up  in  his  Edokass  hermitage,  accompanied  us  as  far  as  the 
meeting  of  the  Baltoro  with  the  Godwin  Austen,  whence  he  returned 
to  the  base  camp  with  the  coolies. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


FROM  RDOKASS  TO  THE  CONCORDIA  AMPHITHEATRE. 


Map  and  Panoramas  of  the  Expedition.  —  We  leave  Rdokass.  —  Glacier  Tables.  — ■  The  Median 
Moraine  of  the  Baltoro.  • — The  Workman  Theory  of  Glacial  Ridges.  —  Changes  of  Nomen- 
clature.—  Ice -cones  and  Pyramids.  —  Their  Origin.- — Glacier  Lakes  and  Reservoirs. — 
Camping  on  the  (Uacier.  —  Conway's  Crystal  Peak.  —  The  Doksam  Glacier.  ■ —  The  Marble 
Peak.  —  Godwin  Austen  Glacier.  —  In  Sight  of  K '. 


From  this  point  forward  the 
narrative  may  be  supplemented 
by  the  map  of  the  expedition 
comprising  the  two  upper  thirds 
of  the  Baltoro  and  its  formation 
basin,  drawn  to  the  scale  of 
1  :  100,000.  But  no  description, 
even  with  the  assistance  of 
photography,  can  succeed,  I  fear, 
in  giving  a  just  conception,  even 
if  a  faint  one,  of  this  extra- 
ordinary region.  To  compose 
the  picture  as  far  as  may  be, 
the  reader  must  tax  his  patience 
to  make  a  careful  study  of 
Sella 's  panoramas,  which  were 
taken  from  many  points,  and 
compare  them  with  one  another  and  with  the  maj).  It  is  in  order  to 
make  this  possible  that  not  only  the  topographical  stations,  but  also 
the  points  from  which  the  photographs  were  taken,  are  marked  upon 
the  triangulation  map,  and  the  panoramas  provided  with  the  nomen- 
clature and  altitudes  of  the  different  peaks.  In  addition,  the  points 
from  wluch  other  panoramas  were  taken  are  marked  with  a  small  cross 


From  Rdokass  to  the  Concordia  Amphitheatre.  205 

so  as  to  make  comparison  easy.  The  illustrations  in  the  text  and  the 
plates  are  intended  to  give  special  details  from  the  panoramas.  I  hope 
that  the  frequently  recurring  references  to  the  latter  may  be  justified 
by  this  explanation. 

On  the  morning  of  May  23rd  at  about  eight  o'clock,  after  a  little 
hesitation  owing  to  the  uncertain  look  of  the  weather,  we  placed  our 
trust  in  the  stability  of  the  barometer  and  in  the  wind,  which  seemed 
to  be  veering  from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  we  all  set  out  from 
Rdokass,  leaving  only  the  shepherds,  a  couple  of  chuprassis  and  a  few 
coolies  in  Mi".  Baines'  service.  The  Duke's  plan  was  to  follow  the 
return  route  of  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition — that  is, 
to  cut  across  the  Baltoro  toward  a  camping  ground  at  the  foot  of  the 
northern  slope,  a  httle  above  Younghusband  glacier,  where  Conway 
had  made  his  Storage  Camp.  We  skirted  the  Rdokass  ridge  downward, 
and  crossed  the  left  hand  moraine,  which  consists  of  good-sized  granite 
blocks,  and  comes  from  the  united  marginal  moraines  of  the  Yermanendu 
and  Mundu  glaciers,  two  affluents  much  larger  than  any  on  the  northern 
side,  which  flow  down  from  the  Masherbrum  group,  separated  by  a  long 
and  low  spur.  We  then  went  a  long  way  up  the  Baltoro  between  the 
central  and  the  left-hand  lateral  moraine.  Here  the  surface  was  com- 
paratively smooth  and  the  detritus  of  granite  and  schist  rather  fine, 
so  that  the  marching  was  not  very  fatiguing.  This  part  of  the  glacier 
is  dotted  with  ice-tables,  none  of  them  very  large  or  liigh,  and  mingled, 
as  usual,  with  cones  and  broken  columns  of  former  tables.  The  tops 
of  these  latter  had  fallen  off,  and  were  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  glacier, 
where,  by  sheltering  another  small  extent  of  ice  from  the  rays  of  the 
sun  while  the  smToundiug  level  sunk  by  melting,  they  would  in  time 
form  new  tables,  the  process  repeating  itself  indefinitely.  After  an 
hour's  march  we  stopped  to  distribute  smoked  spectacles  to  the  coolies, 
for  there  was  a  great  deal  of  fresh  snow  among  the  stones,  and  the 
reverberation  was  trying,  in  spite  of  the  cloudy  sky. 

We  were  now  drawing  nearer  the  median  moraine,  which  rises 
abruptly  to  a  height  of  100  to  200  feet,  or  even  more,  above  the  level 
of  the  glacier.  We  finally  climbed  on  top  of  it,  and  found  ourselves 
amid  rugged  and  broken  ice  covered  with  all  sorts  of  minerals,  mainly 
limestones  and  polychrome  conglomerates.  The  extraordinary  irregu- 
larity of  the  surface  contrasts  curiously  with  the  gentle  slopes  and  the 
structural  lines  of  the  valley.     We  were,  above  all,  struck  by  the  absence 


20C  Chapter  .\II. 

of  crevasses,  a  state  of  things  to  be  explained  only  by  a  level  valley 
bottom,  unbroken  by  abrupt  falls  or  projections.  But  what  can  then 
be  the  origin  of  this  labyrinth  of  heights  and  hollows  ?  What  are  the 
forces  which  have  heaved  uj)  the  glacier  into  high  cones,  into  curving 
waves  or  vertical  steps,  with  every  appearance  of  a  surface  shaped  by 
fracture  ?  Freshfield  attributes  the  irregidarity  of  surface  in  the  Zemu 
glacier  of  the  Kinchinjunga  group  to  the  action  of  the  surface  streams, 
which  have  furrowed  and  carved  out  the  glacier  in  every  direction.  At 
first  sight,  it  does  not  seem  possible  that  confusion  and  irregularity  on 
such  a  vast  scale  as  here  could  be  jiroduced  by  the  action  of  such  simple 
forces,  even  taken  together  with  mievenness  of  surface  melting,  which 
would  be  brought  about  more  actively  where  the  layer  of  detritus  was 
thin,  and  more  slowly  where  it  lay  thick  enough  to  protect  the  ice  from 
the  sun.  The  Workmans  noticed  that  the  ridges  and  valleys  on  the 
Hispar  were  most  pronounced  where  some  big  confluent  joined  the 
glacier  and  pressed  upon  it  fiom  above  with  the  enormous  weight  of  its 
own  moving  mass,  in  some  cases  even  driving  the  main  stream  toward 
the  other  side  of  the  valley.  They  advanced  the  hypothesis  that  the 
surface  upheavals  are  caused  by  this  pressure,  which  thus  forms  veritable 
folds  in  the  plastic  mass  of  the  glacier.  The  theory  is  ingenious,  and 
appears  the  more  probable  in  that  many  indications  in  the  Baltoro 
glacier  seem  at  first  sight  to  confirm  it.  Upon  this  hypothesis  the 
long  high  spinal  vertebra?  of  the  Baltoro  would  be  formed  by  the 
pressure  in  opposite  directions  exerted  by  the  Godwin  Austen  and  the 
upper  Baltoro,  where  they  meet  in  the  Concordia  amphitheatre,  a 
pressure  increased  by  the  confinement  of  their  united  mass  within  the 
limits  of  the  Baltoro  valley,  and  still  further  by  the  force  of  confluent 
glaciers  running  into  it  perpendicidar  to  its  axis  from  the  high  mountains 
on  either  side. 

Panorama  Q  gives  a  long  stretch  of  this  central  upheaval  of  the 
Baltoro,  showing  how  it  starts  abruptly  from  the  surface  of  the  glacier 
and  how  its  walls  are  cut  into  vertical  sections,  apparently  due  to 
fracture  produced  by  pressure  too  great  for  the  elasticity  of  the  glacier. 
The  look  of  the  ice  recalls,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  great  dykes 
caused  by  pressure  in  the  polar  ice-pack,  where  an  analogous  piocess 
goes  on.  Conway,  too,  attributes  the  long  undulations  of  the  Baltoro 
to  pressure  brought  about  by  its  confinement  in  the  narrow  parts  of 
the  vallev. 


From  liclokass  to  tlic  Concordia   Aiupliitlieatrf.  I'or 

XotTOthstanding  all  this,  when  two  mouths  later  we  again  traversed 
the  glacier  on  our  return  and  saw  the  extraordinary  changes  a  few  weeks 
had  been  able  to  effect  in  digging  out  fresh  valleys  and  vastly  increasing 
the  differences  of  level,  we  were  forced  to  own  that  uneven  surface 
melting,  due  to  the  varying  thickness  of  the  moraine  layer,  is  without 
doubt  the  main  factor  in  the  irregularity  of  the  glacier  surface.  It  is 
also  possible  that  the  pressure  of  the  glaciers  against  each  other  does 
bring  about  some  upheavals  and  projections  of  the  mass,  and  that 
these,  in  their  turn,  by  determining  certain  falls  and  dLsplacements  of 
detritus,  add  to  the  iiTegularity  of  the  melting  process  and  so  contribute 
to  the  general  result. 

We  had  now  nearly  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Younghusband  glacier, 
at  about  the  point  attained  by  Godwin  Austen  in  1861.  ^  Although 
we  had  passed  the  spot  where  we  had  intended  to  camp,  Abdullah  and 
the  native  guides  kept  on  up  the  glacier  instead  of  crossing  it  direct 
to  the  northern  side.  After  long  explanations  we  succeeded  in  making 
out  that  the  coolies  put  the  stage  of  Crore  above  the  confluence  of  the 
Younghusband  glacier,  where  Guillarmod's  map  has  Biange,  a  mere 
inversion  of  names.  It  was  obviously  wise  to  profit  by  the  goodwill 
of  the  porters  and  make  the  camp  as  far  up  as  possible.  We  therefore 
allowed  ourselves  to  be  led  without  further  discussion.  The  coolies 
were  being  paid  per  stage  (parao)  at  the  exceptional  tariff  of  seven  annas, 
and  not  by  the  day,  so  it  was  to  their  interest  to  march  quickly  and 
cover  two  or  more  stages  in  a  day. 

Inconsistencies  in  nomenclature  are,  to  my  mind,  far  less  surprising 
in  this  region  than  the  fact  that  there  are  any  names  at  all,  implying 
a  certain  familiarity  with  places  which  the  natives  must  never  have 
visited  voluntarily,  if  one  judged  by  their  violent  aversion  to  the  glacier, 
which  is  certainly  strong  enough  to  counterbalance  any  natural 
curiosity.  Yet  there  are  other  indications  which  seem  to  show  that 
they  have  some  degree  of  acquaintance  with  these  ice-bound  solitudes. 
As  early  as  1892,  at  the  time  of  Conway's  visit,  a  Balti  of  Askoley  made 
on  the  sand  a  rough  sketch  of  the  district  in  order  to  show  Eckenstein 
the  position  of  the  Mustagh  passes,  the  Baltoro,  the  Mustagh  Tower, 
Masherbrum,  Gasherbnim  and  K-.- 

•  From  here  Godw-in  Austen  climbed  part  way  up  one  of  the  spurs  of  the  southern  chain  of 
the  Baltoro  in  order  to  get  a  view  of  K '. 

-  See  the  letter  of  Sm  W.  M.  Conway,  in  Proc.  Boy.  Geog.  Soc.  14,  1892,  p.  857. 


208 


Chapter  XII. 


From  Rdokass  on  we  obsen^ecl,  as  did  our  predecessors,  some  higher 
hummocks  or  pointed  cones  far  too  hirge  and  broad-based  to  be 
identified  with  the  pedestals  of  fallen  glacier  tables.  Little  by  little 
as  we  went  up  these  strange  formations  became  more  numerous,  and 
increased  in  height  up  to  from  30  to  70  feet  or  more.  They  are  in  shape 
either  cones  with  an  oval  base  or  flattened  pyramids,  whose  greatest 


ICE   PYRAJIID   ON   THE    BALTOBO. 


diameter  runs  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  valley.  They  usually 
terminate  in  a  sharp  point.  On  the  right  side  of  the  glacier,  to  which 
we  had  now  crossed,  we  found  them  large  and  imposing  and  arranged 
in  rows  running  in  the  direction  of  the  moraine.  As  you  go  farther 
down  they  get  farther  apart,  but  remain  between  the  same  moraine 
lines.  The  glacier  marked  with  these  snow-white  pinnacles  over  a 
dark  background  of  moraine  presents  an  odd  appearance — like  a  grave- 
yard with  rows  of  tombstones,  or  a  river  dotted  with  fleets  of  white 
lateen  sails. 


From  Rdokass  to  the  Concordia  Aiupliitlieatre.  20'j 

The  first  observer  to  call  attention  to  these  ice  pyramids  was  God\vin 
Austen,  whom  nothing  noteworthy  escaped.  Giiillarmod  supposes  them 
to  be  seracs  fallen  from  overhanging  side  glaciers,  and  reduced  to  this 
shape  by  melting.  Ferber  notes  the  phenomenon  without  attempting 
an  explanation.  They  seem  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Baltoro — at  least,  the 
ice  cones  and  pyramids  seen  by  the  Workmans  on  the  Hispar  and  by 
Longstaff  on  the  Siachen,  and  the  glaciers  which  cut  into   the   upper 


ICE    l'YRA.MIDS. 


Shyok  valley,  appear  to  be  merely  supports  of  fallen  tables.  In  any 
case,  we  have  no  detailed  descriptions  which  would  suffice  to  identify 
them  with  the  pyramids  of  the  Baltoro. 

These  formations  we  observed  only  as  far  as  the  entrance  to  the 
Concordia  basin.  We  saw  iione  of  them  on  the  higher  portion  of  the 
glacier,  where  the  action  of  melting  is  equally  intense.  But  in  the 
Concordia  amphitheatre  and  on  the  upper  Baltoro  we  saw  formations 
which  might  account  for  the  origin  of  the  pyramids.  I  mean  the  long 
high  dykes  of  ice  which  rise  between  the  dark  moiaine  ridges  hoUowed 
by  melting.     They  are  generally  bare  of  detritus,  possibly  owing  to  the 

(9221)  o 


210 


('Ii;i])ter   XII. 


steepness  of  their  sides,  and  stand  out  sliarply  from  tlio  moraine-coveicd 
surface  as  if  the  live  ice  had  violently  thrust  itself  up  through  the  shroud 
of  detritus.  Panoramas  K  and  N  show  some  of  these  icy  crests.  Heie 
and  there  they  appear  already  divided  into  segments  and  sejiarated 
blocks,  in  consequence  of  the  melting  of  the  intermediate  parts  due  to 


EMPTY    BASIN    OF   GLACIAL   LAKE. 


patches  of  detritus.  Godwin  Austen  observed  on  the  Baltoro  itself, 
in  addition  to  the  pyramids,  certain  oblong  blocks  with  a  sharp  ridge 
on  top,  which  must  have  been  larger  sections  of  one  of  these  ice  dykes. 

In  this  part  of  the  Baltoro,  between  the  ranks  of  pyramids,  are 
numerous  exquisite  little  lakes,  mere  collections  of  water  in  hollows, 
not  fed  by  streams  or  provided  with  outlets.  Some  of  them  are  covered 
with  ice  vaults,  recalling  similar    formations  on  the  Agassiz  glacier  in 


Masherbnim,   from   the   Raltoro 


II  ilriic  1      111 )     Mil  1 1 1     .nil;  Id  !  iii-i;  ii 


iim-> 


From    IMokass   to  the  Concordia  Ani))hitlic'atrc'.  211 

Aksku.  The  ice  pyramids  poised  011  the  margin  of  these  little  lakes 
are  dazzlingly  reflected  in  the  translucent  water  ;  or  where  the  basin 
has  been  emptied  the  adjacent  ice  pyramid  appears  to  have  added  the 
whole  depth  to  its  own  height.  In  other  places  we  look  through  fissures 
into  large  caverns  filled  with  water  up  to  various  levels.  Godwin  Austen 
made  a  special  study  of  these  spherical  reservoirs,  noticing  outlets  upon 
their   walls,   some   of   which  reached   the   proportions   of  real   tunnels 


OPENING   OF   A   RESERVOIR. 


traversed  by  endo-glacial  torrents.  I  must  mention  also  the 
symmetrical  conical  hillocks  on  wide  bases,  entirely  covered  with 
detritus,  which  reach  sometimes  a  height  of  300  feet.  The  Workmans, 
who  observed  similar  hillocks  on  the  Hispar,  attribute  them  to  thrusts 
acting  concentrically  from  different  directions.  But  Dr.  Cesare  Caiciati 
and  Dr.  Mathias  Koncza,  who  accompanied  the  Workmans  upon  their 
last  expedition,  think  they  are  due  to  irregular  surface  melting.  We 
did  not  get  sufficient  data  to  conclude  in  favour  of  eitlier  hypothesis. 
On  our  way  down  from  the  median  moraine  to  the  right  half  of  the 
glacier  we  crossed  a  moraine  streak  of  white  marbles  coming  from  the 
last  glacier  on  this  side  of  the  valley  near  the  Concordia  basin.     Beyond 

(9221)  o  2 


21  i 


Chapter  XI  I. 


this   point   the   granite    ))egin.s   again.     Here   we   also   found   scattered 
pebbles  worn  to  varying  degrees  of  roundness. 

Jiittle  by  little  the  weather  improved.  Though  the  sky  did  not 
quite  clear  and  light  mists  were  still  lingering  on  some  of  the  peaks,  we 
now  began  to  get  sight  of  surrounding  sunmiits  which  told  us  we  were 
nearing  the  high  peaks.  It  seemed  as  if  the  whole  southern  chain  of 
the  Baltoro  had  no  other  office  than  to  form  a  base  for  the  marvellous 
Masherbrum,   which  towered  xip   in   its   midst,  showing  a   little  dimly 


MITKE   PEAK    WITH    ADJACENT   SOITH    WALL   OV    THE    BALTORO. 


through  the  mist.  Its  gigantic  northern  wall  is  deeply  furrowed  and 
loaded  with  glaciers  breaking  into  icefalls  down  the  sides  of  a 
tremendous  central  rib  of  rock.  This  latter  is  also  covered  in  gi'eat  part 
with  ice,  and  leads  up  to  the  small  horn  which  forms  the  topmost  peak, 
25,660  feet.  The  second  peak,  25,610  feet  high,  is  hidden  behind  the  first 
one.  The  foot  of  the  mountain  is  at  least  four  miles  from  the  Baltoro, 
and  the  space  between  is  traversed  by  two  large  glaciers,  the  Mundu 
and  Yermanendu,  which  flow  on  either  side  of  a  long,  low  and  deeply 
indented  spur,  like  a  miniature  chain  of  peaks  running  at  right  angles 
to  the  main  one.  To  the  east  of  Masherbrum  and  beyond  a  series  of 
minor  spurs  which  divide  a  few  secondary  val]e3's,  the  Baltoro  receives 
two  more  confluents  as  large  as  the  glaciers  of  the  Masherbrum,  flowing 


Gasherbrulii 


'  rtu1dT^ti^Bi) 


From  Rdokass  to  the  Concordia  Amphitheatre.  21:3 

down  in  great  icefalls  from  precipices  loaded  with  snow.  Then  comes 
Mitre  Peak,  a  colossal,  strangely-shaped  crag,  which  terminates  the 
left  wall  of  the  valley.  In  front  of  us,  apparently  quite  close  at  hand, 
the  transversal  chain  of  the  Gasherbrum  seeias  to  shut  in  the  valley. 
It  is  a  file  of  peaks  and  snow  crests,  stretching  on  both  sides  of  the 
precipitous  rock  wall  of  the  Gasherbrum  itsolf,  all  ridges  and  ice  guUies, 


GASHERBRUM. 


and  nearly  10,500  feet.     It  is  bounded  by  two  ridges  which  would  meet 

at  a  sharp  angle  were  they  prolonged  beyond  the  truncated  peak.     To 

the  north  of  the  Gasherbrum,  on  the  continuation  of  the  same  range, 

the  great  rounded  domes  of  Broad  Peak  rise  above  the  last  spurs  of  the 

right  wall  of  the  Baltoro,  which  still  project  in  front  of  us.     Lastly,  to 

our  rear  the  Mustagh  Tower  has  detached  itself  from  the  lesser  peaks 

and  stands  up  alone  and  menacing.     It  has  not  even  yet  revealed  the 

full  splendour  of  its  outlines. 

(9221)  o  3 


214 


CliapttT  XII. 


About  4  p.m.,  after  a  little  over  seven  hours'  marching,  when  we 
had  long  passed  all  the  coolies,  we  found  a  spot  on  the  moraine  which 
was  relatively  level  and  free  from  boulders,  at  a  point  half-way  between 
Younghusband  glacier  and  the  stage  of  Gor^,  or  Biange,  as  Guillarmod 
has  it.  Here  the  Duke  decided  to  place  the  camp.  The  coolies  did  not 
arrive  until  after  sunset.  They  had  but  ten  loads  of  firewood,  all  small 
and  wet,  and  they  experienced  great  difficulty  in  kindling    their    tiny 


MITRE    TEAK   FROM    THE   CAMP   BETWEEN'    RDOKASS   AXD   THE   CON(»RDL\. 

fires.  The  sky  had  clouded  over,  and  it  began  to  snow  again.  We  could 
not  leave  the  poor  wretches  without  shelter  for  the  night  with  the  snow 
falling,  so  we  lent  them  the  two  large  tarpaulins.  Quickly  and 
thoroughly  the  ingenious  Baltis  cleared  two  big  squares  from  superfluous 
stones,  built  a  low  wall  around  them,  stretched  the  tarpaulias  across, 
and  were  soon  all  sheltered,  packed  as  close  as  herrings,  but  quite  happy 
and  satisfied.  In  order  not  to  encroach  upon  their  slender  stock  of 
firewood  we  inaugiu^ated  our  Primus  stoves,  which,  as  usual,  required 
our  personal  supervision  for  the  first  few  days,  until  Bareux  had  time 
to  learn  how  to  use  them. 


From  Rdokass  to  the  Concordia  Amphitheatre.  215 

During  the  night  the  thermometer  fell  to  several  degrees  under 
freezing  point,  and  the  next  morning  was  very  chilly.  The  air  was  still 
but  slightly  veiled,  reminding  us  of  the  dusty  horizons  of  the  Indus 
valley.  Our  native  guides  made  us  descend  nearly  at  once  into  the 
deep  trough  between  the  valley  wall  and  the  glacier,  full  of  very  mistable 
blocks,  where  the  whole  march  is  up  and  down  hill,  because  one  has 
constantly  to  cross  portions  of  the  glacier  which  jut  out  on  to  the  rock. 
These  stretches  were  covered  witli  very  coarse  detritus,  upon  which  you 
must  step  very  lightly,  because  if  you  move  one  block  the  whole  of  the 
stony  slope  above  and  below  you  begins  to  sUde  down,  and  the  least 
that  could  happen  would  be  an  unexpected  plunge  in  some  marginal 
lake.  It  would  doubtless  be  easier  and  less  dangerous  to  walk  along 
the  surface  of  the  glacier,  as  we  should  have  done  but  for  the  Anolent 
objection  of  the  coolies  to  marching  on  it,  not  so  much  on  account  of 
the  cold  as  from  superstitious  terrors. 

In  less  than  an  hour  we  reached  a  little  lake  at  the  foot  of  a 
secondary  valley  (the  next  but  one  after  the  Younghusband  glacier), 
which  our  coolies  called  the  stage  of  Gore.  Here  Conway  camped  (Pool 
Camp),  also  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition  (Biange)  ; 
and  one  of  the  two  parties  set  up  a  cairn,  which  is  still  standing.  From 
this  point  Conway  ascended  a  peak  of  the  ridge  above,  19,400  feet 
high,  which  he  named  Crystal  Peak.  Thence  he  discovered  the 
Concordia  basin  and  the  three  nnghty  glaciers  which  flow  down  to  it — 
the  Godwin  Austen,  the  upper  Baltoro  and  the  Vigno.  This  peak 
which  Conway  climbed  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  one  20,587  feet 
high  which  bears  the  same  name  on  our  map  and  lies  farther  east,  almost 
directly  above  Doksam.  The  latter,  which  is  very  well  suited  to  be  a 
topographical  station  of  reference,  owing  to  its  striking  pointed  shape, 
was  proxdsionally  called  Crystal  Peak  by  Negrotto  in  his  survej'ing 
work,  and  the  name  was  preserved  inadvertently.  In  the  course  of  a 
topographical  campaign  it  is  unavoidable  to  give  some  temporary 
conventional  name  or  sign  to  peaks  which  have  to  be  identified  from 
different  stations.  Beyond  this  casual  naming  the  Duke,  as  I  have 
ex])lained,  named  none  of  the  many  peaks  measured  by  us,  agreeing 
with  Burrard  that,  until  a  rational  system  shall  be  found,  it  is  better 
to  designate  peaks  simply  by  theii-  altitudes. 

We  now  crossed  the  mouth  of  another  small  valley,  and  at  the  next 
opening  in  the  wall  we  left  the  ice  and  skirted  a  gentle  grassy  slope 

19221)  o  4 


216 


Chapter   XII. 


where  Conway  had  camped  (Fan  Camp),  and  whence  he  climbed  to  a 
saddle  on  the  ridge,  from  which  he  had  his  first  sight  of  K-  and  was 
able  to  realize  the  vast  dimensions  of  Broad  Peak. 

We  finally  came  back  to  the  glacier  proper,  where  we  were  able  to 
proceed  more  rapidly  and  with  less  fatigue,  in  a  space  between  two 
bands  of  moraine    where  there  were  numerous  little  lakes.     In  a  few 


THE   MAKBLE    PEAK    AT   THE   CORNER  BETWEEN   THE   GODWIN    AUSTE.V    AXD   THE    BALTORO. 


minutes  we  reached  the  last  confluent  glacier  on  this  side  of  the  valley, 
which  is  not  very  large,  and  flows  down  from  a  strange-looking  peak, 
a  pinnacle  of  pure  white  marble  rising  from  a  wide  base  of  black  slaty 
schists.  This  glacier,  like  the  Liligo,  does  not  reach  the  Baltoro,  but 
ends  not  far  from  it,  between  two  moraines  of  dazzhng  white  marble, 
in  a  great  frontal  wafl  of  broken  ice  hke  a  line  of  surf.  The  Shikari 
Abdullah  told  us  that  this  glacier  had  totally  changed  its  appearance 
since  1902,  when  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition  camped 
in  the  space  between  it  and  the  Baltoro  (Doksam  Camp).  Certainly  it 
would  not  now  be  possible  to  set  up  the  tents  on  the  small  level  that 


From   Rdokass  to  the  Concordia   Ainphitlieatre.  217 

remains,  which  is  under  continual  fire  from  the  seracs  of  the  advancing 
glacier. 

We  had  now  nearly  reached  the  end  of  the  Baltoro  valley  proper. 
At  a  short  distance  from  us  a  promontory  from  the  base  of  the  marble 
peak  ran  down  to  the  glacier.     We  knew  that  this  was  the  last  obstacle 


FIRST   SIGHT   OF    K ". 


between  us  and  the  sight  of  the  Godwin  Austen  valley  and  K-,  which 
lay  behind  it,  and  we  were  seized  with  unspeakable  restlessness  and 
fear  lest  the  mist  should  cut  us  ofE  from  the  long-looked-for  reward, 
which  had  been  in  the  background  of  our  consciousness  through  every 
step  of  the  long  way. 

We  rounded  the  spur  following  the  wide  sweep  of  moraine,  now 
grown  level  and  even,  almost  without  noticing  the  vast  space  of  the 
Concordia  amphitheatre  spread  out  before  us.  Suddenly,  and  without 
warning,  as  if  a  veil  had  been  lifted  from  our  eyes,  the  wide  Godwin 


218  Chaptfv  XII. 

Austen  valley  lay  before  us  in  its  whole  length.  Down  at  the  end,  alone, 
detached  from  all  the  other  mountains,  soared  up  K-,  the  indisputable 
sovereign  of  the  legion,  gigantic  and  solitary,  hidden  from  human  sight 
by  innumerable  ranges,  jealously  defended  by  a  vast  throng  of  vassal 
peaks,  protected  from  invasion  by  miles  and  miles  of  glaciers.  Even  to 
get  witJiin  sight  of  it  demands  so  much  contrivance,  so  much  marching, 
such  a  sum  of  labours. 

It  fills  the  whole  end  of  the  valley,  with  nothing  to  draw  the  attention 
from  it.  All  the  lines  of  the  landscape  seem  to  meet  and  converge  in 
it.  The  mountains  group  themselves  about  it.  yet  without  any  intrusion 
upon  it  or  interference  with  its  pxtraordinary  upward  effort,  its  lines 
are  ideally  proportioned  and  perfectly  balanced,  its  architectural  desigji 
is  powerful,  adequate  to  the  majesty  of  the  peak  without  being  heavy  ; 
the  steepness  of  its  sides,  its  ridges  and  its  glaciers  is  appalling ;  its 
rocky  wall  is  12,000  feet  high. 

For  a  whole  hour  we  stood  absorbed.  We  gazed,  we  minutely 
inspected,  we  examined  with  our  glasses  the  incredible  rock  wall.  All 
the  time  our  minds  were  assailed  with  increasing  doubt,  culminating 
almost  in  certainty,  that  this  side  of  the  mountain  was  not  accessible, 
and  did  not  oft'er  even  a  reasonable  point  of  attack.  Meantime  the 
atmosphere  grew  gradually  thicker,  the  veil  of  whitish  vapour  heavier, 
stretching  and  expanding  and  melting  together,  until  even  the  last 
spectral  image  disappeared  and  a  uniform  grey  curtain  of  mist  filled 
the  end  of  the  valley.  The  vision  was  gone.  Beneath  a  lowering  sky 
the  Concordia  ice-plain  lost  itself  to  the  south  in  the  dim  vastness  of 
the  upper  Baltoro. 


CHAPTER  XIIT. 


FROM    CONCORDIA    TO    THE    FOOT    OF    K-. 

PRELIMINARY    INVESTIGATIONS    AND    FIRST    ATTEMPT 

The  Concordia  Amphitheatre.  —  Confluent  Glaciers.  —  The  Southern  Wall  of  K '.  —  Broad  Peak.  — 
( iasherbrum.  Golden  Throne  and  Bride  Peak.  —  The  Arrangement  of  the  Moraines.  — 
Photogrammetric  \\'ork  begim.  —  The  Lower  Part  of  the  Godwin  Austen.  • —  Structure  of 
the  Broad-Gasherbrum  Range. —  Height  of  Broad  Peak  determined.  —  The  '' Nieves 
Penitentes  "  of  Dr.  Workman.  —  The  Camp  at  the  Base  of  K-.  —  Exploration  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Slopes. —  The  Plan  of  Attack.  —  The  Camp  moved  to  the  Southern  Ridge  of 
K'.  —  The  Duke  leaves  the  Base  Camp.  —  Three  Days  on  the  Slopes  of  K  -.  —  Defeat.  — 
Return  to  Camp.  —  Coolies  and  Crows.  —  Snowfalls  and  Avalanches. 

The  dawn  of  May  2oth  found 
us  up  and  abroad.  The  ther- 
mometer stood  at  15°  F.  On 
the  evening  before  veils  of 
mist  and  cloud-curtains  had 
so  shrouded  the  landscape  that 
we  had  not  in  the  least  reahzed 
the  incredible  spectacle  of 
glaciers  and  mountains  which 
now  stood  revealed  in  the  pale 
Ught  of  morning.  The  air  was 
perfectly  still  and  just  lightly 

^  dimmed,  like  a  crystal  breathed 

'.'■'t-  <4ir^1*  "    '  upon,  yet  clear  enough  to  show 

everv  detail  of  the  marvellous 
scene. ^ 
We  had  camped  on  one  side  of  the  huge  glacial  cross  roads,  named 
by  Conway  the  Concordia,  after  the  glacial  basin  of  the  Oberland,  in 
which  the  Aletsch,  the  largest  glacier  in  Europe,  has  its  source. 


'  See  the  map  of  the  Baltoro  and  jianoranias  C  and  D. 


2-20  ('liaj)ter   XIII. 

The  basin  is  formed  by  the  bifurcation  of  the  Baltoio  valley,  at  the 
foot  of  the  bastion  made  by  the  Broad  Peak  (Gasherbrum  range).  One 
of  the  two  branches  of  the  valley  is  the  Godwin  Austen,  which  goes  up 
northward  to  K-.  The  other  is  the  Upper  Baltoro,  which  runs  south- 
east to  Golden  Throne  and  Bride  Peak.  Both  valleys  then  curve  east- 
ward, and  combined  they  form  a  letter  C  made  up  of  nearly  31  miles 


MITRE   PEAK   FROM   THE   CORNER   BETWEEN"    THE  BALTORO   ASD   THE   GODWIN    AUSTEN. 

of  glaciers.  In  addition  to  these,  two  other  good-.sized  glaciers  come 
into  the  Concordia  from  the  western  walls  of  the  Broad-Gasherb  rum 
chain.  They  meet  directly  outside  their  own  valleys,  and  wedge 
themselves  between  the  Baltoro  and  the  Godwin  Austen,  cro.ssing  the 
basin  in  a  white  stripe  of  bare  ice  between  the  moraines  of  the  two  main 
glaciers.  These  four  main  affluents  alone  are  at  least  five  miles  broad, 
without  counting  the  numberless  smaller  tributaries  coming  in   from 


From  Concordiji   to   the    Foot  of"  K '■. 


221 


the  valleys,  gorges  and  couloirs  of  the  mountain  chains ;  while  the 
basin  which  receives  them  all  is  only  two  and  a  half  miles  in  diameter, 
and  the  Baltoro  valley  itself,  into  which  the  whole  mass  is  compressed, 
less  than  two  miles  broad.  The  entrance  to  the  latter  is  guarded  by 
two  characteristic  heights — to  the  north  Conway's  Angle  Peak,  a  marble 
summit  20,088  feet  high  ;  and  to  the  south  the  bizarre  tooth-shaped 
Mitre  Peak,  20,462  feet  high,  entirely  composed  of  black  schist. 


SOUTHKKN    VIKW    OK    K" 


On  every  side  the  eye  meets  a  spreading  vista  of  wide  valleys  filled 
Avith  almost  level  glaciers,  which  go  up  at  a  gentle  slojDe  among  the  lofty 
chains.  The  Godwin  Austen  is  composed  of  parallel  stripes  of  black 
and  white,  formed  by  the  alternation  of  bare  ice  and  moraine  detritus. 
It  runs  northward  for  six  miles  to  the  base  of  K^,  which  rises,  a  p\T:amid 
of  rock,  12.000  feet  high  from  base  to  summit,  between  two  ridges  that 
outline  themselves  to  west  and  east  against  the  sky.  The  first  of  these 
is  all  rock,  rmining  straight  down  to  the  valley.  The  second  forms 
a  broad  ice-covered  shoulder  nearly  3,000  feet  below  the  terminal  peak, 
from  the  edge  of  which  it  drops  in  a  very  steep  descent  divided  into 


222 


Chapter   XIII. 


two  luinoi-  crests.  In  the  centre  of  the  pyramid  another  great  rocky 
ridge  comes  down  directly  south-west  to  a  narrow  icy  saddle  (Negrotto 
Pass,  21,322  feet),  beyond  which  it  shoots  up  in  a  graceful  snowy  peak 
(22,490  feet  high)  of  a  slender  pointed  shape,  recalling  our  own  Grivola. 
The  neighbourhood  of  the  colossus  robs  it  of  all  significance. 

The  southern  face  of  the  mountain  is  cut  ol)liquely  by  a  glacier 
coming  down  from  the  eastern  shoulder  in  four  great  leaps  or  cascades 


LOWER   PEAKS   OF    THE    OASIIERBRUM    RANCE.       BY    TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 


of  seracs,  separated  by  slanting  terraces.  All  the  ridges  and  gullies  of 
the  wall  are  exposed  to  its  avalanches.  The  terminal  cone,  from  the 
saddle  up,  shows  plainly  the  stratification  of  the  rocks.  Every  moun- 
taineer will  recognize,  at  first  sight  of  the  illustrations,  the  resemblance 
of  K^,  as  seen  from  the  south,  to  the  Matterhorn. 

The  valley  appears  to  end  at  the  foot  of  tlie  mountain ;  instead 
of  which  it  bends  abruptly  north-east,  and  runs  in  between  K-  and 
the  northern  slopes  of  Broad  Peak.  The  heavy  and  massive  outHne 
of  the  latter,  surmounted  by  its  three  huge  rounded  peaks,  comprises 
in  itself  almost  the  whole  left  side  of  the  Godwin  Austen  valley.     A 


From  Concordifi  to  tlio   Fof)t  of  K  ". 


■22-3 


short  broken  ridge  joins  it  to  Gasherbrum  IV,  whose  summit  rises  above 
the  spur  dividing  its  two  western  glaciers.  From  the  Gasher brums 
the  chain  extends  toward  the  south  in  a  ragged  edge  of  rocks  and 
snowy  peaks  to  form  the  western  side  of  the  Concordia  amphitheatre 
and  the  upper  Baltoro. 

The  upper  Baltoro  rises  gently  toward    the  south-east,  and  has  an 
aspect  similar  to  that  of  the  Godwin  Austen.     It  is  covered  with  stripes 


BRIDE    PEAK    FROM    THE   CODWIX    Al'STEX.    XEAR   THE   COSCORDLV. 


of  moraine,  which  grow  narrower  and  farther  a])art  as  they  go  up  the 
valley,  and  are  divided  by  wider  and  wider  spaces  of  bare  ice  ;  it  runs 
to  the  foot  of  a  mountain  whoso  broad,  rounded  top  is  covered  with 
glaciers.  This  is  Conway's  Golden  Throne,  some  15  or  16  miles  distant 
from  the  Concordia.  Here  the  Baltoro  turns  eastward  and  disappears 
from  view.  A  wide  glacier-covered  depression  separates  Golden  Throne 
from  Bride  Peak  on  the  west.  The  latter,  too,  is  white  with  snow.  It 
turns  toward  us  its  characteristic  northern  wall,  shaped  like  a 
trapezium,  topped  by  a  long  ridge,  the  ends  of  which  form  the  two 
peaks  of  the  mountain.  The  one  to  the  east,  325  feet  higher  than 
the  other,  is  a  station  of  the  Indian  Survey  (Karakoram  No.  8, 
25,110  feet).     From  Bride  Peak  a  long  spur  runs  northward  toward  us, 


224  Chapter  XT  1 1. 

ending  in  a  sharp  angle.  Between  it  and  Mitre  Peak  opens  the  Vigne 
valley,  which  contains  the  third  largest  glacier  of  the  Concordia  basin. 

The  picture  presented  by  the  mountain  groups  just  described,  which 
close  our  horizon  to  the  south  with  their  glacier-covered  flanks,  is 
entirely  different  from  that  formed  by  the  iirecipitous  rocks  of  K-  and 
the  crags  of  the  western  ranges  extending  to  the  Gasherbnim  and 
beyond.  The  eye  and  mind  of  the  mountaineer  turn  for  relief  to  the 
broad  curving  lines  of  Golden  Throne  and  the  snowy  sides  and  ice- 
covered  wall  of  Bride  Peak,  since  everywhere  else  he  looks  he  sees 
nothing  but  perpendicular  rocks,  sheer  precipices  thousands  of  feet 
high,  tuireted  battlements  of  rock,  needles,  pinnacles,  sheets  of  ice 
bordered  with  great  cornices,  walls  and  gorges  running  at  extravagant 
angles  up  to  extravagant  heights,  crowned  by  seracs,  and  showing 
everywhere  the  gleam  of  living  ice.  Yet,  despite  it  all,  one  felt  the 
compelling  and  irresistible  ambition  toward  a  closer  acquaintance  and 
more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  lonely  giant  which  so  few  men  before 
us  had  ever  even  beheld. 

It  was  only  on  the  return  journe)',  after  the  end  of  the  campaign 
upon  K-,  that  the  rare  occurrence  of  two  days  of  unbroken  fine  weather 
enabled  Sella  to  take  panoramas  C  and  D — the  first  from  the  outer  base 
angle  of  the  marble  peak  which  stands  on  the  corner  between  the 
Baltoro  and  Godwin  Austen  glaciers  (17,329  feet)  ;  the  second  from  a 
point  opposite  the  first,  17,917  feet  high,  on  the  western  ridge  of  the 
Gasherbrum.  Taken  together  these  two  panoramas  show  the  whole 
region  of  which  the  Concordia  basin  is  the  centre,  and  the  great  glacial 
streams  that  converge  in  it.  They  also  bring  out  clearly  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  moraines,  which  is  almost  geometrical  in  its  regularity. 
It  seems  unbelievable  that  a  haphazard  combination  of  rocks,  ice  and 
snow  on  so  vast  a  scale  could  result  in  such  a  harmony  of  line  and  form. 
The  long,  sinuous  bands  of  moraine,  converging  and  blending  into  one,  or 
remaining  separate  and  running  down  in  pairs  of  rigidly  parallel  lines 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  follow  them  into  the  lower  Baltoro,  seem  like  a 
graphic  representation  of  the  movement  of  the  glacial  masses,  and  give 
one  a  very  definite  idea  of  the  ice-flow.  The  panoramas  show  likewise 
the  series  of  ranges  running  up  and  up,  one  behind  the  other,  to  the 
last  point  of  vision  and  beyond,  as  well  as  the  innumerable  host  of  peaks 
that  tower  above  them.  The  work  of  triangulation  carried  out  on  the 
photogrammetric  survey  of  the  expedition  has  designated  a  considerable 


Gasherbrum 


From  a  western  spur  of  Gasherbrum,  17.917  ft. 


r 


From    CoiRdidia    to    tlic    Foot   of  Iv  ".  225 

number  of  these  peaks,  a.scertaiiiiiig  their  lieiglit  and  position  ;  but  there 
remain  countless  others,  by  no  means  small  or  unimportant,  not  indicated 
by  any  sign  upon  the  map. 

On  our  first  view  of  it.  in  tlie  morning  of  May  25tli.  the  landscape 
was  still  shiouded  in  the  spring  snows.  It  looked  quite  different  at  the 
end  of  June,  when  Sella  took  his  photographs.  The  impression  made 
upon  us  was  so  strong,  so  moving,  that  no  words  can  convey  it  to  the 
reader.  It  was  like  no  other  experience,  it  provoked  no  recollections 
or  comparisons.  So  inconceivably  vast  are  the  structural  lines  of  the 
landscape,  that  tiie  idea  comes  into  one's  mind  of  being  in  the  workshop 
of  nature,  and  of  standing  before  the  primeval  chaos  and  cosmos  of 
a  world  as  yet  unvisited  by  the  phenomenon  of  life. 

In  all  Alpine  ascents  one  knows  one  has  left  the  green  fields,  the 
trees  and  the  villages  only  a  day  behind  ;  and  from  all  the  heights  one 
looks  down  on  the  green  mantle  of  verdure  covering  the  earth.  The 
bare  rocks  and  ice  are  but  limited  areas,  not  huge  unconfined  wastes. 
Here  one  is  conscious  of  not  a  single  manifestation  of  life.  It  is  com- 
parable to  the  polar  regions  in  this  respect,  but  in  no  other,  for  instead 
of  the  monotonous  horizons  of  the  far  north,  all  the  landscape  around 
K-  has  the  richest  variety  of  design,  the  greatest  majesty  of  form,  and 
an  infinite  diversity  of  plane  and  perspective. 

The  scale  is  far  too  vast  for  one  to  receive  an  impression  of  the  whole 
at  once.  The  eye  can  only  take  in  single  portions.  For  a  long  time 
we  did  not  become  fully  conscious  of  the  dimensions  of  the  landscape. 
We  had  no  standards  of  comparison,  and  the  glaciers  and  valleys  are  so 
well  adjusted  in  their  proportions  to  the  surrounding  mountains  that 
it  was  hard  to  realize  the  absolute  size  of  any  object.  All  this  was 
revealed  to  us  gradually,  Ijy  dint  of  daily  contemplation  and  detailed 
observation,  most  of  all  by  repeated  failures  in  estimating  heights  and 
distances.  Thus  it  happened  that  our  amazement,  instead  of 
diminishing  with  familiarity,  grew  greater  every  day,  and  this  extra- 
ordinary region  never  made  a  more  profound  impression  upon  us  than 
on  the  day  when  we  bade  it  farewell. 

The  Concordia  basin,  lying  in  the  heart  of  the  ranges,  at  the  junction 
of  their  greatest  glaciers,  is  the  place  above  all  others  adapted  for  the 
base  or  point  of  departure  for  topographical  work.  Four  of  the  most 
important  trigonometrical  stations  of  the  region  are  visible  from  it — K-, 
Uasherbrum  IV,  Bride  Peak  (Karakoram  No.  8)  and  Masherbrum  I. 

(9221)  V 


226  CllJiptrr    .Ml  I. 

For  this  reason  the  Duke  had  arranged  the  evening  before  that  we 
three  should  remain  at  the  Concordia  for  a  whole  day,  while  he,  with 
the  guides  and  the  bulk  of  the  luggage,  went  up  the  Godwin  Austen 
glacier  to  the  foot  of  K^  to  look  for  a  suitable  spot  for  a  base  camp, 
whence  he  could  conduct  operations  upon  all  the  slopes  of  the  mountain. 
This  plan  was  carried  out.  Unfortunately  the  misty  atmosphere,  which 
later  became  actual  fog,  prevented  Sella  from  doing  any  photographic 
work.  Negrotto,  however,  succeeded  in  getting  out  two  panoramas 
available  for  topographical  purposes. 

The  next  morning  we  said  good-bye  to  Mr.  Baines,  who  went  back 
to  Rdokass  with  all  the  coohes  except  the  ten  chosen  to  remain  with 
us.  We  then  set  out  to  join  our  leader  at  the  foot  of  K-.  The  weather 
was  perfect,  for  the  first  time  since  we  had  set  foot  on  the  glacier.  The 
clear  sky,  the  pure  transparent  air  and  the  splendour  of  the  sunlit  snows, 
seemed  to  us  like  a  welcome  to  the  region,  and  filled  our  minds  with  tlie 
boldest  hopes. 

For  some  distance  we  proceeded  along  a  tongue  of  ice  between  two 
stripes  of  the  left-hand  moraine.  On  this  side,  between  the  Concordia 
amphitheatre  and  K-,  the  Godwin  Austen  receives  two  affluents.  The 
lower  comes  in  between  the  Crystal  Peak  chain  and  a  short  ridge  that 
runs  up  to  the  water  shed  ;  the  second  is  a  more  considerable  glacier, 
coming  from  the  western  slopes  of  K-.  Between  the  two,  at  the  foot 
of  the  intervening  spur,  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition 
placed  their  Camp  VIII.  We  were  gradually  getting  nearer  the  centre 
of  the  glacier,  which  is  occupied  by  wide  median  moraines  still  largely 
snow-covered.  The  snow  lay  very  unevenly :  in  some  places  a  couple 
of  feet  deep ;  in  others,  even  outside  the  moraine,  it  had  quite  dis- 
appeared. All  the  longitudinal  furrows  of  the  glacier  had  water 
running  in  them  from  the  surface  melting,  covered  by  a  more  or  less 
tliick  sheet  of  ice.  Some  of  us,  walking  rather  incautiously,  went  in 
over  our  knees  in  the  icy  water. 

We  walked  at  an  easy  pace  up  the  hardly  perceptible  slope,  glad 
to  have  left  behind  the  rough  moraines  of  the  Baltoro.  The  sim  was 
mild  and  the  reverberation  not  severe.  Little  wisps  of  tourmente  raised 
by  the  wind  floated  here  and  there  over  the  high  ridges,  moving  across 
the  pale  blue  sky.  Immense  chains  rose  all  about  us  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  see.  In  spite  of  their  size,  the  mountains  have  all  the  bold  design 
to  be  seen  am'where  in  the  Alps — the  barren  precipices,  the  sno\vy 


From  Concordia  to  the   Foot  of"  K  -'.  227 

slopes  and  the  upward  thrust  of  slender  peaks,  the  ample  curving 
cornices,  the  multiform  Inoken  architecture  of  seracs,  and  the  over- 
weighted glaciers  hanging  on  vertical  rocks.  But  all  this  exists  with 
such  luxuriance  and  upon  such  a  gigantic  scale,  that  one  stands 
bewildered  in  the  midst  of  a  scene  that  seems  to  beggar  the  human 
imagination. 


THE   ^VESTERS   FACE   OF    BRO\D   PEAK. 

The  left  wall  of  this  part  of  the  Godwin  Austen  is  largely  formed 
by  a  low  screen  of  black  rock,  which  detaches  itself  from  the  western 
crest  of  Broad  Peak  and  runs  southward.  Behind  it  the  glaciers  of  the 
whole  enormous  wall  of  Broad  Peak  fall  down  and  run  together. 
Wherever  this  wall  is  not  covered  with  ice  one  can  see  distinctly  the 
light  grey  rock  arranged  in  broad  strata.  "We  had  already  noted  the 
similar  appearance  of  the  rock  in  the  spurs  of  the  Gasherbrums.  From 
an  examination  of  the  moraines  that  have  their  origin  in  the  various 
mountains,  we  were  able  to  ascertain  that  the  whole  chaiu  of  Broad 
Peak  and  the  Gasherbrums,  including  Hidden  Peak  and  Golden  Throne 
as  well,  is  a  sedimentary  formation  ;  while  the  outer  cur\'e  of  the  letter 
C   formed   by   the   two   great   valleys,   covering  all  the   distance   from 

(9221)  V  -2 


228  Chapter   XIII. 

Staircase  to  Bride  Peak,  taking  in  the  pyramid  of  K'-,  is  composed  of 
crystalline  rocks,  granites,  gneiss  and  quartzes,  with  the  single  excej^tiou 
of  the  marble  peak  which  forms  the  corner  between  the  lower  Baltoro 
and  tlie  Godwin  Austen.  This  last  appears  to  be  a  splinter  broken 
oft"  from  the  calcareous  mass  of  the  other  side  of  the  valley.  Ing. 
Novarese  has  confirmed  our  conclusions  by  an  analysis  of  the  mineral 
specimens  brought  back  by  the  expedition.  With  the  aid  of  our 
descriptions  and  Bellas  photographs  he  has  been  able  to  reconstruct 
on  its  general  lines  the  geological  scheme  of  the  high  glaciei-  basin. 
Most  interesting  to  observe  is  the  close  analogy  between  its  structure 
and  that  of  the  great  glacial  valley  of  the  Siachen,  which  lies  south-east 
of  the  upper  Baltoi'o.  Dr.  Longstaff,  who  explored  the  lattei'  in  this 
same  summer  of  1909,  and  demonstrated  for  the  first  time  its  vast 
extent,  mentions  the  fact  that  it  is  contained  within  a  compound 
formation,  one  wall  being  a  granite  chain  to  the  south-west,  and  the 
other,  on  the  north-east,  a  range  of  limestone  sedimentary  rock.  The 
latter  contains  Mount  Teram  Kangri,  24,500  feet  high. 

The  presence  of  calcareous  rock  in  the  Gasherl)rums  is  sufficiently 
evident,  and  did  not  entirely  escape  the  observation  of  Conway.  He 
says  that  the  Concordia  basin  is  suii'ounded  by  mountains  in  which 
one  can  distingiush  alternate  black  and  pale  grey  streaks  of  gneiss, 
granite  and  limestone.  T.  G.  Bomiey  and  Miss  C.  A.  Raisin,  who  made 
the  mineralogical  repoit  of  Conway's  expedition,  concluded  fi'oni  their 
examination  of  the  specimens  brought  back  that  "  a  considerable  mass 
of  sedimentary  rock  must  be  infolded  from  Gasherbrum  to  Golden 
Throne."  Guillarraod  only  mentions  the  white  marbles  of  the  Doksam 
glacier,  near  the  angle  between  the  Baltoro  and  the  Godwin  Austen.^ 
But  up  to  now  the  vast  extension  of  sedimentary  rock  had  not  been 
suspected  by  any  one,  nor  the  fact  that  it  forms  the  chief  constituent 
of  the  whole  mighty  barrier  which  interrupts  the  course  of  the  Baltoro 
on  the  west.  Even  in  the  recent  monograph  of  Burrard  and  Hayden, 
the  axis  of  the  great  Himalayan  peaks  and  of  the  mountain  systems 
belonging  to  them  is  described  as  a  granite  formation. 

It  is  probable  that  the  thick-set  form  and  huge  mass  of  Broad  Peak 
rather  bhnded  Godwin  Austen  and  Conway  to  its  remarkable  height. 

'  He  says  also  that  marble  has  been  found  "  s\ir  les  flancs  momes  du  Chogori  "  (K*),  without 
more  precise  indicatit)n  ;  but  we  are  unable  to  confirm  the  existence  of  limestone  in  the  rocks 
of  K'. 


From  Concordia   to  the  Foot  of"  K  ■'.  229 

The  result  obtained  by  triangulation  from  Negrotto's  data  shows  it  to 
possess  a  peak  27,132  feet  high,  flanked  by  two  others  of  26,024  and 
26,000  feet.  No  other  mountain  over  27,000  feet  has  been  found  since 
1858,  and  Burrard  considered  it  improbable  that  there  would  be  further 
discoveries  of  peaks  27,000  or  even  26,000  feet  high.  In  a  list  of  our 
highest  known  mountains  Broad  Peak  would  occupy  the  sixth  place, 
those  ranking  above  it  being  Mount  Everest,  K-,  the  two  peaks  of 
Kinchinjunga,  and  Malaku  in  the  Everest  gioup.  All  these  peaks  have 
been  measured  from  several  stations,  with  all  the  exactitude  at  present 
obtainable,  considering  that  there  exist  some  elements  not  precisely 
calculable,  such  as  that  of  refraction,  which  thus  remain  sources  of 
possible  error.  The  peaks  recently  discovered  are  still  awaiting  the 
confirmation  of  further  observations  carried  out  from  different  stations 
and  witli  more  precise  methods. 

In  oui'  first  stage  on  the  Godwin  Austen  we  did  not,  as  this  long 
digression  would  seem  to  indicate,  concentrate  our  attention  on  Broad 
Peak.  K-  had  too  great  a  fascination  for  us,  now  that  we  could  observe 
it  from  base  to  summit.  As  we  approached  it  the  wall  appeared  to 
grow  less  steep,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  obstacles  became  more 
evident — the  live  ice  of  the  gullies,  dominated  by  overhanging  seracs  ; 
the  gleam  of  venjlas  on  the  rocks  ;  the  sheer  precipices  showing  every- 
where on  the  face  of  the  wall.  We  left  the  central  moraine  where  it 
began  to  curve  toward  the  base  of  the  south-western  spur,  and  walked 
across  on  the  glacier  to  the  left-hand  marginal  one.  Where  it  rounds  the 
western  angle  of  Broad  Peak  the  glacier  is  heaved  up  in  folds  cut  and 
broken  in  every  direction,  forming  a  perfect  cataract  of  seracs.  These 
waves,  gradually  diminishing  in  height,  reach  to  the  centre  of  the  glacier, 
and  there  form  in  regular  rows  of  small  seracs  along  the  sides  of  long 
flat  corridors,  which  nfford  an  easy  and  rapid  progress.  Dr.  Workman 
would  call  these  formations  "  nieves  penitentes,  serac  variety."  The 
term  nieves  penitentef,  is  generally  used  to  designate  specific  surface 
formations  of  the  snow  in  the  Andes  mountains  and  other  places,  caused 
either  by  melting  or  by  the  wind.  Dr.  Workman  has,  in  repeated 
publications,  1  urged  its  extension  to  all  the  manifold  projections  and 

»  W.  Hunter  Workmax.  Ocog.  Jour.  31,  1908.  |>i..  :i4  and  394  :  32.  19()S.  p.  139  ;  34.  1909. 
p.  570;  Zeit.  far  Gktsrherk.  2,  1907,  p.  22;  3,  1909,  part  4;  also  tlic  voluiiu's  written  by  him 
and  Mrs.  Wokkm^vn,  Peaks  and  Glaciers  of  the  Nun  Knn.  London  1909  :  The  Call  of  tht  Snow)/ 
HisjMir.     London  1910,  etc. 


230 


Chapter   XIII. 


protuberances  which  render  uneven  the  surface  of  mountain  ice  or  snow, 
and  has  created  at  will  a  complicated  classification,  distinguishing  eight 
varieties  and  three  sub-varieties.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  the 
advantage  gained  from  confounding  the  most  diverse  glacial  formations, 
which  have  neither  origin,  production  nor  composition  in  common. 


SOUTHERN    WALL   OF    K  ". 


We  dkected  our  steps  straight  toward  the  aiigle  at  the  right  side 
of  the  glacier  wlxich  cuts  the  southern  wall  of  K-  and  flows  out  on  the 
Godwin  Austen  with  a  high  front  of  seracs,  like  the  tributaries  of  the 
Baltoro.  At  the  foot  of  this  glacier  is  a  small  stretch  of  marginal 
moraine,  shut  in  between  the  valley  wall  and  the  side  of  the  Godwin 
Austen,  below  a  depression  in  the  south-western  spur  of  K^  (Xegrotto 
Pass).     Here  there  was  a  refuge  from  falhng  stones  and  ice,  protected 


From   C'oiRonlia   to  the   Foot  of   Iv  -'.  -j-.m 

on  three  sides  from  the  wind,  and  getting  the  sun  fioni  early  morning 
till  four  in  the  afternoon.  Upon  this  spot  the  DulvC  had  fixed  his  camp. 
K^  towered  up  immediately  above  us,  but  so  foreshortened  as  to  lose 
nmch  of  its  height — it  does  not  seem  possible  that  it  rises  to  nearly 
12,000  feet  above  us.  Broad  Peak  is  opposite,  across  the  valley  ;  while 
to  westward  rises  a  beautiful  snowy  range  with  inaccessible  cliffs.  It 
forms  the  risht  side  of  the  glacier  that  curves  about  the  western  side 
of  K^,  and  empties  itself  upon  the  Godwin  Austen  in  a  great  wave  of 
seracs.  To  the  south  there  is  a  spreading  view  that  ends  in  the  gentle 
and  reposefid  outlines  of  Bride  Peak  and  the  .snowy  saddle  on  its  left. 

The  camp  was  deserted  when  we  reached  it.  The  Duke,  according 
to  his  habit,  had  not  lost  an  hour,  but  set  to  work  at  once.  Accom- 
panied by  Giuseppe  Petigax  and  Enrico  Brocherel,  he  had  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  glacier  which  comes  into  the  Godwin  Austen  below  the 
camp,  and  climbing  its  terminal  cascade,  not  without  considerable 
difficulty,  gradually  rounded  the  end  of  the  south-western  spur  of  K-. 
Beyond  the  seracs  the  glacier  expands  into  a  wide  valley  nmiiing  north- 
ward below  an  impregnable  wall  of  rock,  the  western  flank  of  K^.  The 
valley  ends  in  a  broad  rounded  col,  upon  wliich  descends  the  north- 
western ridge  of  the  mountain,  which  is  less  steep  than  the  southern 
ridge.  If  one  could,  with  the  help  of  the  coolies,  once  set  up  a  camp 
on  this  saddle,  there  would  remain  only  about  6,500  feet  to  conquer 
between  it  and  the  peak.  The  Duke  climbed  the  glacier  up  past  its 
centre,  searching  on  his  return  for  some  way  of  access  to  the  valley 
tliat  would  be  easier  for  the  coolies  than  the  route  over  broken  ice,  full 
of  treacheroiLS  cracks,  by  which  he  had  entered  it.  The  furrow  between 
the  glacier  and  the  rock  on  the  left  side  of  the  valley  gave  him  what 
he  sought,  and  at  three  in  the  afternoon  he  returned  to  the  camp. 

In  the  meantime  a  second  party,  composed  of  Alexis  and  Emilio 
Brocherel,  Bareux  and  Savoie,  had  gone  up  the  Godwin  Austen  above 
the  camp  to  examine  the  eastern  slopes  of  K-.  Their  report  was  not 
very  encouraging.  The  long  north-eastern  ridge  was  out  of  the 
fpiestion,  as  well  as  the  whole  eastern  side  of  the  mountain,  whicli  was 
extremely  steep,  covered  with  ice  and  exposed  to  avalanches  of  seracs. 
They  then  turned  their  attention  to  a  ridge  of  rock  visible  from  the 
camp,  running  directly  up  from  the  glacier  to  the  edge  of  the  great 
snowy  shoulder  of  the  mountain.  This  was  the  only  route  that  looked 
at  all  possible  to  them. 

(!)221)  P  4 


232 


ChaptcT   Xlll. 


Thus  ou  the  first  day  after  reaching  tlie  foot  of  K-  the  Uuke  had 
akeady  made  a  cursory  examination  of  two-thirds  of  the  circumference 
of  the  mountain.  Nowhere  had  ho  discovered  an  easy,  obvious  and 
safe  route  to  the  peak,  and  the  undertaking  assumed  a  doubtful  hue. 
Nor  did  there  appear  to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  any  low  saddle,  any 
easy  pass,  by  which  to  get  over  and  examine  the  northern  side.  More- 
over, Colonel  Sir  Francis  Youngliusband,  \vho  had  seen  the  northern 


THE    BASE   CAMr    AND    Kli:HT   WAT.I.   OI'   THE    SAVOIA    CI.ACIER. 


side  of  K-  from  no  great  distance,  described  its  precipitous  and 
forbidding  aspect  in  terms  that  left  very  little  to  hope  for  a  route  on  that 
side.  The  Duke  decided  to  act  at  once  upon  the  knowledge  already 
gained,  but  before  choosing  any  one  slope  in  preference  to  others,  he 
waited  in  order  to  examine  for  himself  on  the  morrow  the  rocky  ridge 
which  Alexis  Brocherel  had  proposed  for  a  trial. 

Meanwhile    we    had    sent    the    coolies    back    to    bring    up    the    few 
remaining  loads  left  behind  at  the  Concordia.     By  May  27th  we  had 


From  Concordia   td  iIr-   Foot  of  K  ■'.  233 

established  our  camp  and  were  provisioned  for  a  month,  sufficient  for 
a  long  siege.  The  tents  were  set  up  in  two  rows  on  the  levelled  stony 
surface  of  the  moraine,  with  the  little  settlement  of  coolies  a  hundred 
feet  away  and  a  little  below  us.  Our  stores  were  sheltered  within  stone 
walls  with  the  tarpaulins  stretched  over  them.  Thus  the  place 
(Camp  III  on  the  map)  was,  in  all  its  arrangements,  a  permanent 
encampment  and  point  of  departure  for  the  explorations  to  take  place 
on  K'.  A  series  of  meteorological  observations  was  kept  up  there, 
synchronous  with  those  carried  on  at  Rdokass  and  the  four  Kashmir 
stations.  The  result  gave  for  the  camp  a  height  of  16,493  feet,^  and 
it  became  n  second  station  of  reference  next  to  Rdokass,  for  the  calcula- 
tions of  pressure  readings  taken  by  the  expedition  on  the  glaciers  that 
girdle  the  base  of  K-. 

The  Duke  decided  to  make  the  attempt  on  the  southern  ridge  of 
the  mountain.  It  is  certainly  steeper  and  longer  than  the  north- 
western crest,  which  runs  down  to  the  col  at  the  head  of  the  glacier  he 
had  already  explored.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  had  certain 
advantages.  In  the  first  place,  there  was  not  the  unknowui  quantity 
of  the  climb  up  the  ice-wall  to  arrive  at  the  col.  And  more  important 
still,  tlie  slope  faced  full  south  and  got  the  sun  from  early  in  the  morning. 
This  is  a  consideration  of  the  greatest  importance  in  ascents  above 
24,000  feet,  as  the  intense  cold  can  prove  not  only  a  difficulty,  but  a 
grave  danger  to  the  explorer. 

The  route  being  chosen,  it  remained  to  settle  upon  a  plan  of 
campaign.  Almost  everywhere  on  the  ridge  we  could  see  with  our 
binoculai's  the  gleam  of  t'erglas,  bare  ice,  hard  and  polished  hke  crystal, 
which  gives  the  last  touch  of  difficulty  and  danger  to  a  climb.  How- 
ever, we  hoped  that  a  few  days'  sun  and  wind  might  lay  bare  the  rugged 
rock,  where  one  would  be  able  to  get  a  grip  with  hands  and  nailed  boots. 
About  .S.oOO  feet  above  the  valley  there  stood  out  from  the  ridge  a 
prominent  rock  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour.  The  plan  was  to  make  a 
high  cam])  there  with  the  Whymper  tents,  so  as  to  be  able  to  wait  a 
few  days  if  necessary.  The  small  light  Mummery  tents  are  no  protection 
against  the  weather,  being  good  only  for  temporary  night  shelters. 
From  this  spot  the  Duke  hoped  to  gain  the  shoulder  of  the  mountain, 
making   an    intermediate   light   camp   with    the    Mumnierv   tents.     The 

*  16,512  feet  on  the  map.  Km-  the  discrepancy  in  tlie  tigures  see  the  discussion  of  the  alti- 
nietiie  data  in  Chaptci-  XIX. 


23^  Chapter  XIII. 

peak  itself,  from  the  shoulder  up,  looked  inaccessible  from  where  we 
were ;  but  even  if  it  proved  quite  impossible  on  nearer  view,  the 
conquest  of  the  shoulder  (25,354  feet)  was  in  itself  an  undertaking  am{)ly 
worth  while. 

Despite  the  most  painstaking  and  rigid  selection  of  equipment,  our 
luggage,  consisting  of  tents,  sleeping-bags,  food  for  a  week,  cooking 
apparatus  and  paraffin,  and  the  Alpine  outfit,  made  a  considei-able 
weight  and  bulk  which  we  knew  not  how  to  J'educe  further,  it  was 
useless  to  embark  on  such  a  project  without  being  armed  at  all  points. 
But  a  calculation  of  ways  and  means  brought  us  to  the  irresistible 
conclusion  that  it  would  not  be  po.ssible  for  any  of  us  to  accompany 
the  Duke.  He  therefore  made  up  his  mind  to  go  alone,  with  all  the 
resources  of  the  expedition,  intent  on  reaching  the  highest  possible 
point  at  a  dash.  Then,  if  his  powers  did  not  hold  out  to  the  last  proof, 
he  would  come  back,  leaving  the  tents  on  the  ridge,  and  handing 
on  the  undertaking  to  one  of  us,  who  would  have  the  advantage 
of  fresh  strength  and  the  fact  that  the  equipment  was  already  on 
the  spot. 

We  discussed  all  these  details,  and  made  ready  the  loads  with  the 
greatest  care.  The  mountains  about  us  were  constantly  flinging  down 
long  white  avalanches  of  snow,  enveloped  in  flying  dusthke  clouds,  and 
filling  the  valleys  with  rumbUng  echoes.  During  these  two  days  of  good 
weather  we  had  had  a  prevailing  east  and  north-east  wind,  but  now 
towards  evening  it  was  veering  to  the  south-east  and  the  air  became 
somewhat  less  pure. 

Guides,  porters  and  cooUes  worked  for  two  days,  carrying  the 
nece.ssary  eqmpment  up  to  the  ridge.  A\'e  meanwhile  occupied  our- 
selves with  the  never-finished  task  of  adjusting  the  camp,  arranging 
the  tents  more  suitably,  filling  up  with  stones  the  holes  in  the  ice  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  puddles,  and  levelling  ofi  surfaces  with  pick- 
axes. The  weather  became  bad  again.  The  wind  whistled  on  the  high 
ridges  as  violently  as  on  the  Alps  in  winter.  Storms  raged  about  the 
summits  and  snowy  peaks,  and  long  streamers  of  fog,  tattered  and 
tenuous,  were  brought  up  by  the  south-west  \vind.  The  veils  of  mist 
gradually  thickened  and  settled  down  layer  after  layer  around  K^  and 
Broad  Peak.  Above  the  Concordia  basin  the  sky  was  all  streaked  with 
clouds,  which  hung  dark  and  lowering  over  the  entrance  to  the  Baltoro. 
The  temperature  remained  steadily  below  freezing  point.     There  were 


From  Concordia   to  the  Foot  ot"  K  '. 


no  more  avalanches,  and  when  the  wind  was  down  the  silence  was  so 
nnbroken  as  to  become  oppressive. 

On  the  morning  of  May  30th  all  was  ready.  The  weather  had  not 
changed  and  the  moimtains  looked  sinister.  We  bade  adieu  to  our 
leader  witli  good  wishes,  which  did  not  succeed  in  disguising  from 
ourselves  the  insecurity  we  felt  as  to  the  outcome  of  his  bold  under- 
taking. The  simple  fact  is  that  these  are  not  mountains  like 
other  mountains,  and  one  oaimot  look  at  them  without  disquiet  and 
foreboding. 


.A--;.'.  .;.>^ 


'■^%:^-\^^\ 


THE    DUKE    LEAVING    THE    BASE    CAMl'. 


The  Duke  was  accompanied  by  tli(>  three  guides,  the  four  porters 
and  the  cooUes,  carrying  their  own  tents  and  supply  of  chupattis.  He 
crossed  the  front  of  the  glacier  that  comes  down  from  the  southern  wall 
of  K-,  and  went  up  the  Godwin  Austen  to  the  foot  of  the  southern 
ridge,  some  500  feet  higher  than  the  base  camp,  traversing  the  broken 
margin  of  the  glacier  and  the  shallow  depression  between  it  and  the  wall, 
and  climbing  up  over  Inoken  detritus  loosely  scattered  over  the  solid 
rock.  The  incline  wa.s  moderate.  He  kept  close  to  the  right  side  of 
the  ridge,  and  reached  a  sheltered  snmiy  nook  (18,245  feet  high)  at  the 
base  of  a  rocky  tooth,  where  the  guides  dejiosited  the  equipment.     Little 


23G 


Chapter  XIII. 


levels  were  soon  made  by  means  of  retaining  walls,  for  the  two 
Whymper  tents.  The  coolies  camped  close  by.  After  a  few  hours  of 
rest  and  some  food,  the  guides,  porters  and  coolies,  with  their  loads, 
started  on  again.  But  only  a  short  distance  from  the  tents  the  coolies 
flung  down  their  burdens  and  turned  back,  despite  the  commands  and 
entreaties  of  the  guides.  The  latter  kept  on  climbing  between  the 
principal  ridge  and  a  secondary  one  to  the  east  of  it.  and  then  by  small 


SOUTHERN    RIDOE   OP   K  =. 


ravines  and  divisional  crests,  till  they  reached  a  narrow  saddle  less  than 
1,000  feet  above  the  camp.  The  rock  was  broken  and  mingled  with 
snow  and  ice,  but  thus  far  the  way  had  not  been  difficult,  though  here 
and  there  exposed  to  falling  stones.  They  put  down  their  loads  on  this 
saddle,  and  went  back  to  the  tents. 

May  31st  turned  out  unexpectedly  fine  and  still.  The  loads  now 
weighed  only  25  lbs.,  and  the  coolies  consented  to  take  them  and  follow 
the  guides  up  to  the  saddle.  A  steep  icy  coidoir  runs  down  to  it,  divides 
and  continues  lower  down  in  two  branches.     It  was  impossible  to  climb 


I'roin  Coiifordia   to  the   Foot  of  K  '.  -r.'u 

up  along  the  rocks  on  tlie  sides  of  tlie  couloirs,  so  the  guides  went  up 
the  gully  itself,  leaving  the  coolies  at  the  bottom  with  Bareux.  They 
climbed  for  a  short  distance  on  hard  snow,  then  on  bare  ice,  sticking 
to  the  left  side  in  order  to  utilize  the  rocky  projections,  on  which  they 
fixed  more  than  100  yards  of  rope  for  a  help  to  those  coming  after  with 
the  loads.  In  this  way  they  gained  600  feet,  and  then  succeeded  in 
clambering  up  the  rock  some  300  feet  more.  They  turned  back  at 
about  three  in  the  afternoon,  after  having  reached  a  height  of  certainly 
20,000  feet.     In  two  hours  they  were  again  at  the  tents. 

In  tlie  meantime  the  Duke  had  remained  alone  at  the  camp,  and 
had  taken  this  opportunity  to  examine  minutely  the  central  portion  of 
the  Godwin  Austen.  From  where  he  was  he  had  a  view  of  the  whole 
formidable  northern  wall  of  Broad  Peak  and  of  the  semi-circular  basin 
■\vhich  connects  it  with  the  left-hand  ridge  of  the  upper  glacier.  He 
noted  in  the  edge  of  this  basin  a  depression  easily  reached  by  a  wide 
couloir  full  of  snow,  and  he  made  up  his  mind  to  climb  this  later  on 
in  order  to  examine  the  region  east  of  the  Gasherbnmis.  Avalanches 
of  ice  were  hurling  themselves  down  from  Broad  Peak  at  fi'equent 
intervals,  and  even  at  this  distance  he  could  hear  their  roar. 

From  all  that  they  had  been  able  to  ascertain  from  the  ridge  above 
the  couloir,  the  guides  thought  there  would  be  no  very  grave  obstacles 
to  encounter  :  but  it  was  plain  that  the  ascent  would  take  much  longer 
than  they  had  thought.  For  this  reason  the  Duke  sent  six  coolies  back 
to  the  base  camp  next  morning  to  bring  up  provisions  for  a  longer  stay. 
They  came  down  roped  together,  bringing  us  a  letter  from  the  Duke, 
which  we  naturally  received  with  great  eagerness.  The  sun  and  \sand 
had  bronzed  even  the  tough  skins  of  these  Baltis  ;  but  they  were  in  their 
usual  good  temper,  and  started  back  directly  the  things  were  ready — 
food   for   themselves   and  for  the  Europeans,  extra  rope  and  pickaxes. 

In  the  meanwhile  those  on  the  ridge  had  lost  no  time,  even  though 
the  weather  had  again  turned  adverse.  The  guides  and  portei-s,  free 
from  the  encumbrance  of  luggage,  left  the  tents  in  the  morning  bent 
on  exploring  a  good  stretch  of  the  ridge  to  find  out  if  it  offered  a  chance 
of  ascent  before  fetching  up  more  impedimenta,  perhaps  uselessly. 
They  climbed  i-apidly  to  the  saddle,  then  on  up  the  couloir  by  the  rope 
left  there  the  day  before.  This  height  gained,  they  found  themselves 
on  a  slender  crest  of  rocks  quite  broken  and  crumbhug,  so  as  to  give 
no  securitv  to  the  foot  nor  safe  hold  for  the  hands.     On  one  side  went 


238  Chapter  XIII. 

down  steeply  into  the  valley  the  couloir  by  which  they  had  come  up  ; 
on  the  other  a  dizzy  steep  of  ice  descended  to  the  Godwin  Austen, 
3,000  feet  and  more  below.  The  guides  were  unanimous  in  telling  the 
story  of  the  incredible  optical  illusions  they  suffered,  all  due  to  the 
deceptiveness  of  these  mountaiiis.  Slabs  of  rock  which  at  a  few  yards 
distant  looked  like  gentle  and  easy  inclines,  turned  out  to  be  little  less 
than  perpendicular.  It  was  impossible  to  estimate  the  grade  of  the 
slopes  or  the  distances  between  salient  points  of  the  ascent.  These 
conditions  had  misled  them  when,  on  the  day  before,  they  had  measured 
with  their  eyes  the  route  above  the  couloir. 

The  cold  wind  had  raised  up  a  little  tourmente,  fortunately  not 
enough  to  interfere  with  their  progress.  They  went  on  for  three  hours, 
with  all  the  slowness  and  precautions  rendered  necessary  by  the 
difficulties  of  the  route,  climbing  always  toward  the  reddish  rock  where 
the  Duke  had  hoped  to  set  up  camp,  and  never  reaching  it,  though  it 
seemed  constantly  within  a  few  steps  of  them.  It  would  be  necessary 
to  fix  ropes  all  the  way,  for  the  porters  to  use  in  fetching  up  the  loads. 
As  for  the  coolies,  taking  them  over  such  rough  ground  was  not  to  be 
thought  of. 

The  guides  finally  came  to  the  reluctant  conclusion  that  it  was 
useless  to  proceed  further,  not  because  they  had  encountered  insur- 
mountable obstacles,  but  because  it  was  hopeless  to  think  of  bringing 
so  long  and  formidable  an  ascent  to  a  successfrd  issue,  when  from  the 
very  first  steps  they  had  met  with  such  difficulties  as  made  the  climb 
barely  possible  to  guides  not  hampered  by  loads,  and  put  out  of  the 
question  the  conveying  of  luggage  necessary  to  keep  one  from  perishing 
of  cold  and  exhaustion.  They  came  slowly  back,  gathering  up  the 
rope  they  had  put  along  the  way.  The  Duke  heard  their  report,  and 
wisely  decided  to  reUnquish  the  attack  in  that  direction. 

The  next  day,  June  2nd,  before  12  o'clock  we  were  again  united, 
and  we  ceased  our  anxious  scnitiny  of  the  ridge  through  our  telescope. 
The  weather  grew  steadily  worse,  and  before  evening  it  began  to  snow 
heavily.  It  was  fortunate  that  the  Duke  had  at  least  been  able  to 
satisfy  himself  of  the  actual  conditions  to  be  faced  on  the  ridge  of  K^. 
Among  other  things  the  experience  had  proved  that  the  cooHes,  when 
properly  equipped  and  protected,  can  hold  out  in  the  high  camps,  and 
can  even  do  without  fire,  at  least  for  some  days.  At  the  base  camp 
they  seemed  very  much  at  home.     They  spent  their  time  squatting 


From  Concordia  to  tlie  Foot  of  K  '.  239 

about  theif  little  fires,  which  they  tended  with  the  utmost  care  and 
economy,  and  boiling  tea  in  our  empty  provision  tins.  They  do  not 
carry  firo,  hke  the  Bakonjo  in  Africa,  always  coming  to  beg  matches  of 
us  directly  we  reached  a  stage.  We  noticed  on  our  arrival  at  the  base 
camp  their  number  had  increased  to  eleven,  by  the  addition  of  a  chief 
or  Jemadai-.  He  went  up  with  the  others  to  the  upper  ridge,  but  came 
back  with  an  attack  of  acute  enteritis,  and  we  were  obliged  to  send 
him  down  to  Rdokass  with  the  first  provision  caravan.  In  the  absence 
of  a  head,  personal  relations  were  estabhshed  between  ourselves  and 
the  coolies.  Though  we  could  only  communicate  by  means  of  a  few 
words  of  Urdu  our  guides  had  picked  up  in  former  Himalayan  expeditions, 
there  were  no  difficulties  or  misunderstandings,  and  we  led  a  hfe  of  the 
utmost  harmony  up  to  the  end. 

Mr,  Baines  sent  us  regular  caravans,  bringing  fowls,  eggs  and  roast 
mutton,  as  well  as  wood  and  chupattis  for  the  coohes.  But  our  rations 
were  always  sufficient  and  well-balanced,  and  we  preferred  our  tinned 
foods  to  the  Rdokass  meat.  The  eggs,  however,  were  alw^ays  a  great 
addition.  Every  seven  or  eight  days  we  received  post,  wdth  wonderful 
and  gratifying  regularity. 

Our  constant  companions  in  camp  were  a  dozen  great  crows,  who 
hopped  about  among  the  tents,  picking  up  remnants  of  food  and  dis- 
playing rather  curiosity  than  fear  of  us.  Every  time  an  exploring  party 
set  out  and  made  a  camp  elsewhere,  a  pair  or  so  of  these  crows  attended 
them.  They  actually  followed  the  Duke  to  the  ridge  of  K^.  Some- 
times we  saw  a  stray  falcon  sw^eeping  the  sky  3,000  or  4,000  feet 
above  the  valley.  Later  in  the  season  the  small  rodents  we  had  seen 
at  Rdokass  made  their  appearance  and  maintained  existence,  one  knew 
not  how,  amid  surroundings  that  seemed  incompatible  wnth  any  sort 
of  animal  hfe.  Sella  even  saw  some  of  them  at  nearly  18,000  feet  of 
altitude  on  the  rocky  ridges  around  the  Concordia  basin. 

Negrotto  had  profited  by  a  few  hours  of  clear  weather  to  continue 
the  survey  of  the  Godwin  Austen  with  the  tacheometer  and  photo- 
grammetric  camera.  The  surrounding  mountains  rise  so  high  and  so 
abruptly  above  the  valley  that  it  was  necessary  to  go  for  some  distance 
away  from  them  on  the  glacier  in  order  to  get  their  summits  into  the 
picture  although  the  camera  was  fitted  with  a  wide  angle  lens  ;  while 
with  the  tacheometer  one  is  never  certain  of  sighting  exactly  the 
mountain  sunmiits  with  the  telescope. 


2411  ("liaj)ter   Xlll. 

It  snowed  uninterruptedly  for  twenty-four  hours.  Then  on  June  3rd 
the  great  curtain  of  fog  was  rent  in  every  direction,  and  peaks  and 
mountain  walls  emerged  in  fresh  splendour.  Some  light  wreaths  of 
mist  still  hanging  about  the  slopes  looked  grey  against  the  dazzling 
whiteness  of  the  snow.  The  mountains  were  not  slow  to  shake  off  its 
weight,  and  on  every  side  the  snow  barely  deposited  on  the  steep  inclines 
began  to  fall  of?  and  slide  down  into  the  reservoirs  which  feed  the 
sources  of  the  great  ice  rivers.  The  valleys  resounded  with  the  noLse. 
We  had  a  perfectly  clear  and  calm  sunset.  The  lofty  snows  of  K^  were 
tinged  with  yellow.  The  most  delicate  wisp  of  rose-coloured  cloud 
barely  hid  the  topmost  peak,  and  a  triple  shadow  flung  itself  all  across 
the  mighty  wall,  growing  more  and  more  distinct.  The  moon,  not 
yet  in  sight,  was  projecting  upon  K-  the  giant  profile  of  Broad  Peak, 
while  the  northern  face  of  the  latter  still  diffused  a  tranquil  white  light 
from  its  snowy  surface.  Far  to  the  south  Bride  Peak  stood  out  white 
and  clear  against  the  steel-blue  sky.  Now  the  valley  shook  to  the  roar 
of  an  avalanche  of  ice — prolonged,  cydopean.  The  temperature  had 
gone  down  to  several  degrees  below  freezing,  and  we  reluctantly  turned 
from  the  splendour  of  the  moonlit  night  to  take  refuge  in  our  warm 
sleeping-bags. 

On  the  morrow  would  begin  the  execution  of  a  new  plan  of  campaign. 


Broad  Peak,  at  sunset 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE    SAVOIA    GLACIER    AND    PASS. 

The  Diikc'.s  lU'W  Plan.  —  The  Cam[)  moved  to  the  West  of  K°.  —  doing  up  the  Savoia  Glacier.  — 
Pieliniinary  Excursions.  —  Cold  and  Had  Weather.  —  Mountain  Climbing,  Pliotography  and 
Topography.  —  The  Western  Wall  of  K  -.  —  Ascent  of  Savoia  Col.  —  Disappointment.  — 
Sir  Francis  Younghusband's  Description  of  the  Northern  Wall  of  K '.  —  Return  to  the 
Base  Camp.  —  A  Shortage  of  Chupattis.  —  Change  in  the  Appearance  of  the  (Jodvvin  Austen. 
—  Variable  Weather.  —  Sunsets. 


.Having  concluded  the  explora- 
tion of  the  southern  slope  of  K-, 
the  expedition  turned  its  attention 
to  the  glacier  already  visited  by 
the  Duke  which  girdles  the  base 
of  the  mountain  to  the  west.  No 
one  else  had  ever  trodden  its 
snows,  and  upon  the  map  even 
the  lower  part  of  the  valley  was 
scarcely  indicated.  The  Duke's 
design  was  to  climb  up  to  the 
watershed  col  at  the  top,  with  the 
hope  of  examining  from  that 
point  the  northern  slopes  and  the 
north-western  ridge  of  K'-.  There 
was  the  possibility  that  alongside 
and  behind  this  ridge  might  be  a 
snowy  slope  which  would  oft'er  an  easy  climb  to  the  peak.  The 
preliminary  expedition  would  give  the  opportunity  of  deciding  whether 
it  was  possible  to  carry  a  camp  up  to  the  saddle.  Moreover,  if  an 
attempt  on  this  side  did  not  display  any  greater  chance  of  success  than 
that  on  the  southern  wall,  at  least  it  would  enable  the  Duke  to  ascertain 
whether  he  could  cross  over  the  watershed  and  reach  the  northern 


■24-2 


CliaptcT  Xl\'. 


slopes  and  the  unknown  valleys  below  them.  In  the  meantinu'  Sella 
and  Negrotto  would  complete  the  illustration  and  survey  of  the  valley 
to  the  west  of  K-. 

The  guides  and  coolies  began  to  move  camp  on  June  4th,  only  the 
latter  coming  back  to  the  base  camp.  The  next  day  they  left  again 
with  the  porters,  and  Sella,  Negrotto  and  I  accompanied  them.  Our 
route  shows  plainly  on  the  map,  going  around  the  foot  of  the  south- 
western spur  of  K^,  above  whicth  rises  the  fine  snowy  peak  22.490  feet 


THE   MOUTH   OK   THE   SAVOIA   IJLACIER. 


high.  We  descended  the  right-hand  margin  of  the  Godwin  Austen, 
full  of  holes  and  ridges  and  covered  with  stones  and  moraine  detritus, 
as  far  as  the  end  of  the  spur,  skirting  the  latter  across  masses  of  ice 
heaped  up  at  its  base  by  avalanches  from  glaciers  hanging  1,000  feet 
above.  Next  we  entered  the  ditch  between  the  glacier  and  the  great 
wall  of  metamorphic  rock  arranged  in  almost  vertical  strata.  Our 
route  was  that  followed  by  the  Duke  on  his  way  back  from  his  first 
investigation  of  the  western  side  of  K^.  It  is  the  only  one  that  could 
be  taken  by  the  coolies,  who  would  be  badly  off  among  the  dangerous 
seracs  of  the  centre  part  of  the  glacier,  by  which  the  Duke  liad  made 
his  ascent.     We  went  up  rather  fast,  now  in  the  bottom  of  the  trough 


The  Savoia  (ilafior  and  Pass. 


243 


betweei\  glacier  and  rock,  now  on  the  side  of  one  or  the  other,  often 
exposed  to  falling  stones  or  ice  from  either  side.  The  brow  of  the 
glacier  was  all  ragged  with  seracs  of  the  strangest  shapes,  with  stalactites 
hanging  down  like  long  beards — hollowed  out,  pierced  through  and 
eaten  away  by  melting,  and  often  poised  over  our  heads  at  very 
uncomfortable  angles.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  ascent  were  some  small 
marginal  lakes,  covered  with  thick  ico.  Higher  up  our  way  became 
a  regular  climb  up  a  sort  of  couloir,  half  rock  and  half  ice.     At  the  top 


TERMINAL  CASCADE    OF   THE   SAVOLi. 


of  it  we  stopped  to  let  the  coolies  rest.  They  had  gone  well  over  the 
difficult  ground;  despite  their  burdens.  The  whole  climl)  was  a  httle 
over  600  feet. 

We  had  not  yet  gone  all  the  way  around  the  spur,  from  which 
descend  great  radiating  ridges.  The  terminal  fall  of  the  glacier  faces 
directly  eastward,  and  we  had  now  before  us  the  second  part,  rising 
at  an  easier  pitch  toward  the  north-west.  Looking  back  we  had  a 
magnificent  view  of  Broad  Peak,  picturesquely  swathed  in  mist,  and 
of  the  dizzy  heights  between  it  and  the  Gasherbrum  range,  dominating 
cliffs  of  rock  and  snow  cut  into  innumerable  furrows  by  avalanches. 
On  the  right  of  the  valley  extends  a  row  of  jutting  peaks,  six  of  which 

(9221)  V  2 


244 


Chapter   \I\'. 


are  20,000  feet  high  or  over.  Ju  front  of  us  the  glat-iei'  rises  at  a 
moderate  slope,  with  miiuerous  crevices,  which,  however,  were  narrow 
and  easily  crossed.  Nearl\'  all  their  fiagile  snow  bridges  had  been 
broken  through  by  yesterday's  party. 

Before  long  we  reached  the  upper  basin  of  the  valley,  a  wide  plateau 
facing  the  north,  of  a  puie  whiteness  never  seen  in  the  Alps  except  in 


A   SERAC:    AT   THE    EDGE   OF   THE   SAVOIA   CILAC'IEK. 


the  first  hours  after  a  snowfall.  The  glacier  was  covered  with  thick 
snow,  but  the  track  beaten  by  the  coolies  the  day  before  was  perfectly 
good  and  saved  us  much  trouble.  Botta,  however,  though  he  was 
carrying  a  light  load,  did  not  hold  out  through  the  march.  He  seemed 
exhausted,  and  we  were  obliged  to  leave  him  behind  on  a  mass  of  fallen 
rock  to  wait  for  the  coolies  who  were  to  go  back  on  the  same  day  to  the 
base  camp.  He  had  not  entirely  recovered  his  strength  since  the  attack 
of  fever  at  Rdokass,  though  he  had  been  reUeved  of  heavy  work  and 


Tlif  Savoia   (xlacier  and   Pass. 


245 


his  appetite  and  .sleej)  were  noniuil.  A  longer  experience  convinced 
me  that  at  these  heights  the  system  readjusts  itself  only  very  slowly 
after  any  disturbance,  however  slight. 

We  had  now  gone  all  the  way  around  the  spur.  Alongside  us  a 
glacier  comes  down  fi'om  a  narrow  snowy  col  (Negrotto  Pass),  the  same 
which  on  its  other  side  overlooks  the  base  camp.     Just  below  this  was 


WESTERN    WAl-L  OF    BROAD    TEAK    FROM    THE   T01>  OF   THE   TERMINAL   CASCADE   OF    THE 

SAVOL\. 


erected  the  Whymper  tent  brought  up  the  day  before.  Not  far  fi'om 
us  a  rocky  crest  stands  out  above  the  glacier,  dividing  the  western  wall 
of  K'^  It  rises  to  its  very  summit  in  a  series  of  great  steps,  defined  by 
large  towers.  It  is  this  crest  which  is  outlined  against  the  sky  and 
forms  the  western  side  of  the  pyramid  as  seen  from  the  south.  The 
encampment  is  thus  separated  from  the  base  camp  only  by  the  south- 
western ridge  of  K",  a  horizontal  distance  of  less  than  two  and  a  half 
miles.  It  is,  however,  1 ,664  feet  higher  up.  We  had  hardly  covered 
half  of  the  glacier  basin,  and  were  still  a  considerable  distance  from  the 


(9221) 


<i  3 


24(5  Chapter  XI\'. 

end  of  the  valley  ;  for  the  coolies,  having  reached  this  spot  at  about 
two  o'clock  on  the  previous  day,  tired  out  with  marching  on  the  soft 
snow  and  having  still  to  get  back  that  day  to  the  base  camp,  had 
refused  to  go  any  farther. 

We  found  the  tent  deserted,  the  guides  having  spent  the  day 
exploring  a  route  to  the  col.  It  looked  very  close  to  us,  but  we  were 
misled,  as  usual,  by  the  deceptive  appearance  of  the  glaciers  in  this 
region.  Presently  we  descried  far  ofi  on  the  level  the  tiny  moving 
figures  of  the  returning  party.  It  had  taken  them  more  than  five  hours 
to  reach  the  foot  of  the  col,  and  they  had  found  the  wall  very  steep  and 
covered  with  live  ice,  making  the  imdertaking  look  very  different  indeed 
from  its  aspect  as  considered  from  below.  We  sent  the  coolies  back 
to  the  base  camp. 

At  this  height — 18,176  feet — we  not  only  foimd  ourselves  in  perfect 
condition,  but  could  actually  breathe  more  easily  here  than  at  the  base 
camp.  The  latter,  situated  as  it  was  in  a  sort  of  hoUow  between  the 
glacier  and  the  rock,  had  perhaps  a  Uttle  less  active  circulation  of  air. 
We  had  had  a  west  wind  all  day,  and  towards  evening  it  became  a 
hurricane.  The  weather  was  very  severe,  the  thermometer  falling  in 
the  night  to  5°  F.  The  storm  was  not  over  by  morning,  but  the  guides 
went  off  notwithstanding,  hoping  to  make  their  way  farther  up  the 
slope  of  the  col  than  they  had  succeeded  in  doing  the  day  before.  On 
coming  out  of  our  tents  we  foimd  a  pair  of  crows  from  the  colony  at  the 
base  camp,  walking  about  over  the  snow,  their  feathers  all  ruffled  by 
the  wind.  We  took  shelter  again  almost  at  once,  for  it  was  too  intensely 
cold  to  stand  about  outside,  and  nearly  all  the  mountains  were  covered 
with  mist,  preventing  any  topographical  work.  The  guides  returned 
at  10  o'clock,  di'iven  back  by  the  blinding  tourmente.  Little  by  little, 
however,  it  subsided,  and  the  solar  radiation  became  so  intense  that 
we  almost  regi'etted  the  cold  of  a  few  hours  previous.  The  actual 
temperature  was  only  28°  F.,  but  the  solar  thermometer  registered 
142°  F.,  the  highest  record  we  noted  on  the  glaciers  with  one  exception 
throughout  the  campaign,  though  considerably  lower  than  some  observed 
by  other  explorers  in  the  Karakoram,  of  which  I  will  speak  farther  on.  ^ 

At  11  o'clock  the  Duke  joined  us,  and  an  hour  afterwards  the  coohes 
arrived  with  the  remaining  loads,  going  back  immediately.     Three  of 

»  See  Chapter  XIX. 


TIr-  Savoia  Glacier  and  Pass.  247 

them  stopped  half-way,  among  the  rocks  above  the  cascade  of  seracs, 
where  they  had  placed  a  tent,  a  few  provisions  and  a  little  wood.  They 
were  to  facilitate  our  commimications  with  the  base  camp  below,  where 
Botta  had  remained  on  guard. 

The  wind  came  up  again  towards  evening  from  the  north-west. 
The  air  was  wonderfully  clear.  One  after  another  the  peaks  were 
lighted  up  by  the  last  rays  of  the  sun.  The  monster  beside  us,  in  full 
sunlight,  was  surmounted  by  a  great  tuft  of  rosy  storm-cloud.  On  the 
ridges  the  wind  lifted  the  snow  in  columns  of  tourmente,  or  stirred  up 
squalls  that  filled  the  air  of  the  valley  Avith  crystalline  dust.  Again 
the  thermometer  went  swiftly  downward,  and  the  cold,  sharpened  by 
the  wind,  soon  became  so  unbearable  that  we  took  refuge  in  the  tents. 
Their  walls  shook  all  night  in  the  gale,  but  towards  morning  its  fury 
slackened,  and  when  we  rose  at  five  o'clock  on  June  7th  we  found  a 
perfectly  still  air  and  a  temperature  of  5°  F. 

At  half-past  five  the  Duke  set  out  with  three  guides,  having  decided 
to  try  to  reach  the  ridge  of  the  col  the  same  day.  The  foiir  porters 
remained  with  us,  and  we  soon  got  under  way  with  the  tacheometer, 
photogranimetric  and  photogi'aphic  apparatus,  to  take  advantage  of 
e\-ery  minute  of  the  propitious  day.  We  climbed  obliquely  up  the 
valley  towards  its  right  wall,  which  is  overhimg  by  precipitous  heights 
of  23,000  feet,  from  which  large  glaciers  come  down  into  the  basin. 
Sella  betook  himself  to  a  prominent  icy  hummock  above  us  ;  but  we 
could  not  get  very  near  the  base  of  the  wall,  covered  as  it  was  with 
broken  ice  clinging  insecurely  to  the  steep  incline.  In  fact,  we  had 
just  set  up  the  photogrammetric  camera,  when  a  huge  mass  of  s(5racs 
detached  itself  and  came  down  with  tremendous  force.  We  were  saved 
by  a  depression  in  the  surface  of  the  glacier,  which  deflected  the  course 
of  the  moving  mass. 

What  we  now  had  before  us  was  the  scene  pictured  in  panorama  E. 
Here,  too,  the  whole  landscape  was  nothing  but  a  mere  setting  for  K-, 
which  dominates  every  near-by  object.  We  could  see  its  entire  west 
wall,  splotched  with  snow,  but  so  steep  that  no  glacier  could  chng  to 
it.  Between  the  base  and  the  peak  there  is  little  more  than  a  mile  of 
horizontal  distance,  and  nearly  10,000  feet  of  perpendicular.  The 
arrangement  of  the  rock  in  slightlv  oblique  strata  is  still  more  cvadent 
here  than  when  seen  from  the  southern  side.  The  north-western 
ridge,  which  bounds  the  pyramid  on  the  left,  ends  with  a  low  group  of 

(9221)  I,  4 


248  Chapter   XIV. 

towers  and  pinnacles,  from  which  a  secondary  ridge  runs  down  to  the 
glacier,  bisecting  the  top  of  it.  West  of  this  group  of  rocky  crags  is  the 
broad,  curving,  ice-covered  saddle  which  was  the  goal  of  the  Duke's 
present  ascent.  On  the  other  side,  south-west  of  the  pyramid,  stretches 
the  long  ridge  which  ends  in  that  satellite  to  the  great  peak,  22.490  feet 
high,  which  T  have  already  described.  Lastly,  behind  the  mountains 
which  close  the  basin  to  the  south,  a  sharp  peak  of  rock  just  shows  its 
head,  the  Crystal  Peak  of  our  map. 

The  small  exploring  party  with  the  Duke  at  its  iicad  had  quickly 
crossed  the  ])lateau.  At  the  foot  of  the  col,  in  the  rounded  bottom  of 
the  valley,  is  a  large  hump  of  the  glacier,  which  they  skirted  on  the 
left,  going  along  the  trough  between  it  and  the  valley  wall,  where  they 
went  in  above  their  knees  in  the  heaped-up  snow.  In  less  than  four 
hours  they  reached  the  foot  of  the  slope,  which  was  cut  by  a  large 
herqschrnnd.  The  latter  was  easy  to  cross,  as  it  was  half  full  of  snow 
fallen  from  the  height  above. 

Now  began  the  attack  on  the  wall.  Foj'  a  little  distance  at  the 
bottom  it  was  covered  with  snow,  which  made  a  solid  footing.  But 
this  grew  thinner  and  thinner,  until  there  was  nothing  over  the  bare 
ice  but  a  dry  powdery  layer,  without  any  compactness.  From  the 
camp,  to  which  we  had  returned  after  our  work,  we  watched  with  the 
telescope  the  slow  ascent  of  the  climbing  party.  The  diminutive  figures, 
separated  by  long  lengths  of  rope,  one  almost  vertically  above  another 
on  the  wall  of  ice,  betrayed  the  steepness  of  the  pitch.  They  went 
straight  up,  very  slowly,  climbing  the  long  ascent  which  the  head  guide 
was  cutting  as  he  went  in  the  hard  ice.  About  half-way  up  was  a 
projection  of  rock,  to  the  right  of  which  the  climbing  party  passed 
without  deviating  fi'om  their  course.  The  clear,  calm  day  was  greatly 
in  their  favour.  At  a  quarter  past  five  in  the  afternoon,  after  almost 
twelve  hours  of  effort,  the  ridge  was  conquered,  at  a  point  to  the  right 
of  the  col  and  somewhat  higher.  The  Fortin  barometer  registered 
13 '740  ins.  with  a  temperature  of  16°  F.  The  altitude  calculated  from 
the  photogrammetric  survey  was  21,870  feet. 

The  watershed  proved  to  have  on  its  northern  side  a  broad  cornice 
prolonged  to  the  right  in  such  a  way  as  to  cut  off  completely  tlie  view 
of  the  northern  slope  of  K-.  Below  the  col  to  westward  they  could 
just  make  out  the  wall  descending  toward  the  north  and  disappearing 
verticallv  from  view.     And  that  was  all.     As  a  reward  of  his  labours 


M%k  i^ 


tamuM 


The  Savoia  Glacier  and  Pass.  lmd 

the  Duke  thus  s  w  utterly  annihilated  the  hopes  with  which  ho  iiad 
begun  the  ascent. 

It  is  possible  that  Sir  Francis  Younghusband  saw  this  saddle,  as 
well  as  the  northern  wall  of  K-,  when  he  came  over  the  Mustagh  pass 
from  the  north  in  September,  1887.  According  to  his  map  the  col 
would  belong  to  a  little  valley  running  into  the  Sarpo  Laggo,  a  tributary 
of  the  Oprang,  one  of  the  main  affluents  of  the  Yarkand  I'iver.  Sir 
Francis  Younghusband  described  K-  as  he  saw  it  from  the  Sarpo  Laggo 
valley,  somewhat  more  than  12  miles  away.  On  the  iiorthern  side, 
"  where  it  is  literally  clothed  in  glacier,  there  must  have  been  from  14,000 
to  16,000  feet  of  solid  ice."^  He  made  his  description  somewhat  more 
exact  in  his  recent  book — "  Kashmir" — where  he  says  that  he  saw  K- 
towering  almost  immediately  above  him,  "  very  abrupt  and  upstanding, 
and  with  immense  masses  of  ice  accumulated  at  its  base.''  It  is  possibly 
these  masses  that  feed  the  glacier  which  the  Duke  saw  flowing  westward 
at  the  base  of  the  col.  He  could,  moreover,  ascertain  that  no  laige 
spur  detached  itself  from  the  northern  slopes  of  K-  and  Staircase  Peak. 
Beyond  a  great  valley  to  the  north,  presumably  the  Oprang.  there 
extend  chains  of  lower  mountains  without  any  glacier  of  great  size. 

It  was  too  late  for  the  party  to  hnger  upon  the  col.  After  about 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  they  descended,  the  ropes  making  the  return 
so  quick  that  by  eight  o'clock  they  had  reached  the  hergschrund,  where 
they  found  the  porters  we  had  sent  to  meet  them  with  hot  drinks  and 
the  Alpine  lanterns.  At  half-past  nine  they  were  at  the  camp.  The 
rapid  march  testified  to  their  good  coiidition.  They  were  not  exhausted, 
despite  the  sixteen  hours  of  exertion  at  heights  between  18.000  and 
nearly  22,000  feet.  The  excursion  to  the  western  side  of  K-  had  not 
revealed  any  feasible  way  of  ascent  to  the  peak,  but  it  had  enabled  the 
Duke  to  locate  upon  the  map  a  great  tributary  valley  to  the 
Godwin  .4usten.  He  gave  the  name  Savoia  to  the  new  glacier  and 
the  pass. 

Next  morning,  June  8th,  Sella,  Negrotto  and  I  began  the  return 
march  of  the  expedition,  with  five  coohes  who  had  come  up  from  the 
base  camp.  \Mien  we  reached  the  bend  of  the  glacier  just  above  its 
last  cascade,  we  left  the  path  to  make  a  photogrammetric  station  in  the 
centre  of   the  valley.     We  had  to  go  backwards  and  fnnvards  a  great 

'  Sir  F  E.  YousonisBASD.  Pri,f.  Hoy.  Geng.  Snc.  S.S.  X.  1888.  p.  78."). 


250  Chaj)ter  Xl\'. 

dual  to  escape  the  numerous  broad  crevasses,  and,  as  usual,  we  lost 
considerable  time  in  experimenting  upon  methods  for  preventing  the 
ice  from  melting  under  the  points  of  the  tripod  supporting  the  camera 
and  thus  destroying  the  level  laboriously  attained.  The  slow  and  ceaseless 
progress  of  the  melting  was  revealed  by  the  level  in  the  apparatus,  even 
when  we  set  up  the  latter  on  the  stones  of  the  moraine.  The  only 
surface  stable  enough  for  our  purpose  was  that  of  the  large  boulders, 
and  these  were  unfortunately  of  rare  occurrence.  Since  our  return 
a  simple  device  has  been  suggested  to  me,  which  I  set  down  here  for  the 
benefit  of  any  one  in  a  similar  difficulty.  Put  the  points  of  the  tripod 
into  milk-tins  filled  with  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  which  will  keep 
congealed  the  ice  or  snow  directly  beneath  it,  and  ensure  a  stable 
equilibrium  for  the  apparatus  long  enough  to  execute  the  panorama. 

Our  work  done,  we  went  down  the  ravine  and  reached  the  base  camp 
toward  sunset.  The  Duke  joined  us  the  following  day,  June  9th.  It 
was  the  warmest  day  we  had  had,  and  without  a  breath  of  wind.  The 
gentle,  even  murmur  of  the  rivulets  running  down  the  moraine  slopes 
near  by  suited  well  with  the  summer  calm.  Even  the  cawing  of  the 
crows  sounded  subdued. 

For  the  first  time  the  provisions  for  the  coohes  were  late  in  arriving, 
3,nd  there  was  a  scarcity  of  chupattis.  The  coohes  ended  by  submis- 
sively accepting  some  of  our  biscuits  to  fill  out  their  ration,  and  even 
some  roast  mutton,  when  we  had  convinced  them  that  it  had  been 
prepared  at  Rdokass  by  people  of  their  own  religion  and  caste.  They 
also  found  a  Uttle  sack  of  flour,  wliich  they  ate  raw  with  great  gusto. 
Fresh  provisions  reached  us  on  the  11th,  and  with  them  five  extra 
•coolies  sent  for  by  the  Duke  to  help  shift  the  camp  from  one  place  to 
another. 

Everything  was  brought  down  from  the  Savoia  glacier,  and  we  made 
ready  for  the  next  move.  We  stayed  at  the  base  camp  four  days.  I 
noted  at  this  time,  and  on  similar  occasions,  that  during  such  days  of 
idleness  one  feels  often  a  little  heavy-headed,  and  experiences  some 
loss  of  sleep  and  appetite.  I  imagine  that  moderate  exercise,  by 
enabling  the  processes  of  nutrition  and  metabolism  to  go  on  with  more 
rapidity,  facilitates  the  elimination  of  noxious  products,  which  are 
■either  not  so  easily  converted  or  remain  in  the  system  in  larger  quantities 
at  these  heights  than  in  the  conditions  of  atmospheric  pressure  under 
'which  we  normally  live. 


The  Savoia  Glacier  and   Pass. 


251 


In  t}ie  sixteen  days  since  our  arrival  at  the  base  camp  the  appearance 
of  the  lower  Godwin  Austen  had  changed  considerably,  notwith- 
standing the  continual  alternation  of  good  and  bad  weather.  From 
the  foot  of  K^  down  to  the  Concordia  its  surface  was  now  quite  free 
of  snow,  rougli  and  full  of  sharp  points,  and  traversed  by  long  ridges 
of  ice  between  the  w'ide  streaks  of  moraine,  which  had  become  low 
and  flattened.     The  rockv  walls  were  baring  themselves — the  snow  was 


MITKE    PEAK   FROM    THE    LOWER   GODWIN"    ATSTES. 


confined  to  scattered  patches  and  the  glaciers  were  thus  more  clearly 
defined.  The  lower  spurs  of  Broad  Peak  displayed  surfaces  of  inaccessible 
rock.  Mitre  Peak  turned  toward  us  a  ridge  that  ran  almost  vertically 
from  base  to  summit,  ice-covered  on  its  right  side,  entirely  black  on  its 
left. 

We  had  not  yet  had  three  consecutive  days  of  fine  weather.  The 
wind  blew  almost  uninterruptedly  about  the  high  peaks  and  ridges,  and 
light  falls  of  snow  and  sleet  were  not  infrequent.  There  was  no  sign 
of  a  change  for  the  better  in  the  sky  or  in  the  barometer,  which  remained 
fairly  steadily  at  the  same  point,  with  but  slight  \'ariations.  When 
the  wind  turned  easterly  or  northorlv  it  generally  became  clear  and 
somewhat  calmer,  but  imfortimatelv  that  state  of  things  never  lasted 


252  C'liapttT    \i\  . 

long.  We  gradually  resigned  ourselves  to  taking  the  weather  as  it 
came,  without  attempting  prophecies  always  set  at  naught  hv  the 
capricious  meteorological  conditions. 

Twilight  was  alwavs  followed  bv  severe  and  increasing  told,  which 
arrested  alike  the  falling  stones,  snow  and  ice  and  the  currents  of  water. 
Profound  silence  would  biood  over  the  valley,  even  weighing  down  our 
spirits  with  indefinable  heaviness.  There  can  be  no  other  place  in  the 
world  where  man  feels  himself  so  alone,  so  isolated,  so  completely 
ignored  by  Nature,  so  incapable  of  entering  into  communion  with  her. 
Every  clear  evening  we  enjoyed  the  triumphant  spectacle  of  Bride 
Peak,  displaying  herself  in  immaculate  purity  among  a  cortege  of 
bridesmaids  all  arrayed  in  virgin  white.  Her  northern  wall  seemed  to 
gather  and  reflect  all  the  last  brilliance  of  the  dying  day,  and  gleamed 
resplendently  white  against  a  cold  blue  sky,  which  toward  the  zenith 
became  itself  pale  almost  to  whiteness. 


CHAPTER  X\'. 


THE    UPPER    GODWIN    AUSTEN    GLACIER 

AND    THE    EASTERN    SLOPES    OF    K -. 

Length  and  Situation  of  the  Godwin  Austen  Glacier. —  The  Gorge  between  K'  and  Broad 
Peak. — -The  First  Step  of  the  Glacier.  —  Survey  and  Map  of  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
Guillarmod  Expedition.  —  The  Glacier  Basin  of  Broad  Peak.  —  The  Speed  of  the  Godwin 
Austen.  —  Avalanches  from  Broad  Peak.  —  The  Eastern  Wall  and  North-Eastem  Spur  of 
K'.  —  Staircase  Peak. — Two  Ascents  to  Sella  Pass. — The  Region  East  of  the  Broad- 
Gasherbrum  Range.  —  Teram  Kangri.  —  The  Ascent  to  Windy  (Jap.  —  The  Attempt  of 
Guillarmod  and  Wessely  on  K '. — The  Basin  of  Staircase  Peak. —  "Border  Saddle."  — 
K=  from  Windy  Gap.  —  The  Region  East  of  the  Col.  —  The  Duke  at  Windy  Gap.  —  First 
Attempt  on  Staircase  Peak.  —  Snowfalls  and  Avalanches.  —  Second  Attempt.  —  K '  from 
the  Ridge  of  Staircase  Peak.  —  Observations  on  the  Region  east  of  the  Baltoro. 


We  had  still  to  explore 
the  upper  basin  of  the 
Godwin  Austen  and  the 
eastern  slopes  of  K^ — a 
work  which  occupied  the 
next  fifteen  days  of  the 
campaign. 

According  to  the 
survey  made  by  the 
expedition,  the  Godwin 
Austen  from  the  Con- 
cordia to  Windy  Gap  is 
twelve  and  a  half  miles 
long,  and  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts, 
the  lower  of  which  I 
have  already  described. 
It  runs  north,  loaded 
with  moraine,  and  rises 
about    820    feet   in   the 


254  Chapter  XV. 

six  niiles  between  the  Concordia  and  the  foot  of  K-.  From  this  point 
on  the  glacier  runs  north-east,  in  a  deep  gorge  between  K^  and  Broad 
Peak.  It  has  no  longer  any  surface  moraine,  and  it  gains  some 
3,950  feet  of  altitude  in  six  and  a  half  miles,  chiefly  by  means  of  two 
great  rises  or  steps,  between  which  is  a  relatively  level  space. 

The  Duke  foresaw  that  the  new  enterprise  would  be  of  some 
duration,  and  arranged  to  set  up  a  camp  suitable  for  several  days' 
sojourn  between  the  base  camj^  and  the  upj)er  glacier.  It  took  only 
three  days  for  our  augmented  force  of  coolies  to  carry  to  the  chosen 
spot  three  of  the  large  tents,  the  Whymper  and  Mummery  tents,  a  good 
part  of  the  coolies'  encampment  and  all  the  necessary  supplies.  The 
first  party  of  guides,  porters  and  coolies  started  on  June  12th,  all  of 
them  except  the  guides  returning  the  same  day.  Sella,  Negrotto  and 
I  joined  the  party  on  the  second  day ;  and  on  the  third — June  14th — 
the  Duke  arrived  with  the  coolies  who  carried  the  last  part  of  the 
luggage. 

We  came  out  of  our  base  camp  and  upon  the  moraine  at  the  end  of 
the  southern  glacier  of  K^,  beyond  which  the  Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
Guillarmod  expedition  had  set  up  its  Camp  IX.  We  could  still  see 
some  remains  of  shelter  walls  built  by  them.  The  glacier  was  nearly 
level,  with  few  cracks  and  almost  free  of  snow.  It  runs  at  the  bottom 
of  a  gorge  perhaps  three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  between  the  tremendous 
walls  of  K-  and  Broad  Peak,  over  8,000  feet  above  it.  Threatening  ice 
clings  high  aloft  along  these  walls,  and  the  Godwin  Austen  is  scattered 
with  masses  of  rock  and  large  fi-agments  of  ice  fi-om  avalanches  that 
have  fallen  from  both  sides  and  come  out  across  the  valley  almost  as 
far  as  the  opposite  wall.  There  would  be  no  escape  for  a  party  surprised 
by  one  of  these  avalanches,  and  it  would  be  foolhardy  indeed  to  attempt 
the  passage  directly  after  a  heavy  snowfall. 

The  fii'st  steep  of  the  glacier  begins  at  the  base  of  the  southern  ridge 
of  K^,  by  which  the  Duke  had  already  attempted  to  reach  the  summit. 
The  grade  is  moderately  steep,  broken  in  every  direction  by  crevasses, 
most  of  them  covered  with  treacherous  snow.  We  found  it  necessary 
to  put  on  the  ropes.  At  the  top  of  the  short  ascent  the  glacier  again 
becomes  almost  level  for  a  little  stretch,  forming  a  terrace  18,370  feet  in 
altitude,  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  snow  and  fiill  of  crevasses.  We 
had  been  approaching  the  left  side  of  the  valley,  and  we  reached  this 
level  not  far  from  a  rocky  spur  that  comes  down  toward  us  from  the 


Broad  Peak,  from  Camp  V'l 


17   i\ma')   rriMil   ,>Ib94    liBoiil 


j'rtii 


The  Upper  Godwin  Austen  Glacier.  -j:,:, 

northern  summit  of  Broad  Peak.     This  was  the  site  of  the  Eckenstein- 
Pfamil-Guillarmod  expedition's  CamjJ  X. 

At  this  point  Conway's  map  leaves  ofF.  In  surveying  the  valley, 
from  Fan  Pass  in  the  Crystal  Peak  chain,  about  seven  and  a  half  miles 
distant,  it  looked  to  him  as  though  the  brow  of  this  little  plateau 
might  be  the  top  of  a  col  (Possible  Saddle).  The  Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
Guillarmod  expedition  discovered  and  explored  the  upper  basin  of 
the  Godwin  Austen,  and  put  the  site  of  the  watershed  much  farther 
toward  the  north-east,  at  Windy  Gap. 

Guillarmod's  narrative  is  accompanied  by  a  map  of  the  Baltoro, 
on  a  scale  of  1  :  200,000,  which  reproduces  that  of  Conway  in  its  general 
hnes,  with  the  addition  of  the  upper  Godwin  Austen. '  He  does  not 
describe  the  methods  employed  in  the  survey,  but  the  map  of  the  new 
part,  despite  its  appearance  of  exactness  and  its  being  furnished  with 
contours,  is  only  an  approximate  sketch,  in  which  the  outlines  of  the 
mountains,  the  lateral  valleys  and  the  confluent  glaciers  are  so  altered 
that  it  is  difficult  to  identify  them  when  one  is  on  the  spot.  AVithout 
going  into  detail,  it  is  sufficient  to  instance  that  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Godwin  Austen  is  represented  as  over  nine  miles  long  (from  Conwav's 
Possible  Saddle  to  Windy  Gap),  whereas  it  actually  measures  less  than 
four  miles  :  that  the  horizontal  distance  between  Windy  Gap  and  K-  is 
given  as  nearly  lOi  miles  instead  of  4i  miles  ;  and  that  the  bearing  of 
the  vallev  is  incorrect.  The  altimetric  figures  of  Guillarmod  are 
generally  considerably  in  excess  of  the  ones  measured  by  us.  - 

Dr.  Pfannl,  whose  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the  title  of  the  Ecken- 
stein-Knowles-Guillarmod  map,  published  with  his  account  of  the 
expedition*  a  sketch  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Godwin  Austen,  mentioning 
that  it  is  only  approximate,  and  probably  bears  too  much  to  the  north — 

'  The  map  is  constructed  "  d'apres  les  donnees    existantes  et  les  documents  de  Texpedition 
rapportes  par  O.  Eckenstoin,  G.  Knowles  and  Dr.  J.  Jacot  Guillarmod." 
-  The  following  instances  will  suffice  : — 

Heights  determineil        lleiglits  given  in 
Place.  hy  t lie  expedition  of       (iiiilluriuo^i's  luup, 

tile  Diilie.  lahles  iind  text. 

JlitrePeak            20,462  24,600 

Broad  Peak           27,1.32  28,000 

Staircase 24,07S  26,250 

Mustagh  Tower     23,950-24,950  26,250 

Rdokass     1.'}.205  13,904 

CampX     18,3.50  18,733 

Windy  Cap            20.449  21,500 

'  Zeit.  des  dculscli.  u.  uesl.  Alpcnver.  35,  1904,  p.  88. 


•2b6  Chapter   \V. 

as  is,  in  fact,  the  case.  Except  foi'  tlie  exaggeration  in  tlie  width  of 
the  glacier,  this  drawing  is  nearer  the  actual  dimensions  of  the  valley 
than  the  map  published  In'  (Juillarmod.  The  outline  of  the  chains 
and  ridges  is  also  more  nearly  correct. 

Our  predecessors  stayed  in  the  upper  Godwin  Austen  for  a  month, 
from  June  20th  to  July  21st,  1902.  They  suffered  much  from  bad 
weather.  However,  the  two  Austrian  doctors,  Pfannl  and  Wessely, 
were  able  to  make  numerous  exploring  expeditions,  which  I  mention 
in  the  course  of  my  narrative.  Dr.  Pfannl  was  seized  on  Jidy  15th 
by  a  somewhat  serious  lung  trouble,  and  the  expedition  was  obliged 
to  put  an  end  to  its  campaign  and  return  home. 

From  the  northern  summit  of  Broad  Peak  (26,017  feet)  the  left  side 
of  the  valley  makes  a  wide  circuit  to  the  south-east,  circumscribing  a 
circular  basin  over  a  mile  in  diameter,  filled  with  a  level  glacier  which 
flows  into  the  intermediate  plateau  of  the  Godwin  Austen.  We  crossed 
the  mouth  of  this  tributary,  and  at  the  base  of  the  spur  which  bounds 
it  on  the  right  we  found  the  camp  set  up  on  a  level  strip  of  moraine 
with  a  little  frozen  marginal  lake  near  by.  This  was  the  Camp  VI  of 
our  map,  18,602  feet  above  sea  level.  The  Duke  kept  twelve  of  the 
coolies  with  us  at  this  camp,  the  others  returning  with  Bareux  to  the 
base,  to  keep  up  our  communications  with  Rdokass. 

In  the  ascent  to  the  camp  the  Duke  had  made  an  interesting 
discovery.  Below  the  plateau,  at  the  base  of  the  rise  in  the  glacier, 
he  found  half  buried  in  the  ice  two  mallets  used  for  driving  in  tent 
pickets,  some  kiltas  with  the  bottoms  knocked  out,  some  single  snow- 
shoes  and  several  empty  iirovision  boxes.  These  were  all  articles  left 
behind  at  Camp  X  by  our  predecessors  (Guillarmod  mentions  the 
incident  in  his  book)  when,  after  weeks  of  struggle  against  bad  weather 
and  under  serious  anxiety  over  their  sick  comrade,  they  took  the  return 
route,  carrying  him  on  a  sledge  improvised  out  of  skis.  In  the  interval 
of  seven  years  the  cast-off  objects  had  been  carried  down  the  glacier 
to  nearly  a  mile  below  the  spot  marked  Camp  X  on  Guillarmod's  map. 
One  may  accordingly  argue  an  average  yearly  speed  of  702  feet  for  the 
glacier,  much  less  than  that  calculated  by  our  expedition  on  the  Baltoro 
at  the  level  of  Rdokass. 

The  camp  faced  the  wall  which  terminates  Broad  Peak  to  the  north, 
the  wildest  and  most  impressive  bastion  one  could  possibly  imagine,  a 
series  of  vertical  cUfEs  of  rock  dominated  bv  blue  walls  of  ice  1,000  feet 


TIk'  Upper  Godwin  Austen  Glacier. 


257 


high,  which  represent  sectioiLs  of  the  northern  glaciers  of  Broad  Peak. 
They  sUde  along  unceasingly  on  those  tremendous  steps,  shoving  their 
edges  farther  and  farther  over  the  abyss  until  finally  the  weight  conquers 
the  cohesiveness  of  the  mass,  and  enormous  pieces  break  off  and  hurl 
themselves  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  amphitheatre  with  a  deafening 


EASTERN   SIDE   OF   K  =   AS   SEEN   FROM   CAMP  VI. 


crash  and  a  roar  that  makes  the  vallev  tremble.  Lonsj  echoes  of  the 
tumult  come  back  fi-om  the  mountain  walls,  and  from  where  we  are  we 
can  feel  the  cold  breath  of  the  avalanche  like  a  great  gust  of  wind. 
Day  and  night  every  few  hours  this  thunder  reverberates,  and  in  the 
intervals  the  mind  unconsciously  remains  in  suspense,  waiting  for 
another  downfall.  The  wall  is  dominated  by  the  northern  summit  of 
Broad  Peak,  which  looks  pointed  from  this  side.  To  its  left,  just  behind 
the  ridge,  rises  the  rounded  centre  jieak,  the  highest  of  the  three.     Five 

(9221)  R 


258 


Chapter  XV. 


other  peaks  rise  along  the  circular  wall  of  the  basin,  between  23,222 
and  20,981  feet  high.     Our  camp  is  at  the  base  of  the  fifth  and  lowest. 

The  appearance  of  K-  is  quite  changed;  it  has  become  a  mountain 
of  ice.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  regular  cone  comprised  between  the 
southern  ridge  already  attempted  by  the  Duke,  and  a  secondary  one, 
ice-covered,  which  descends  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley  in  front  of  the 
great  north-east  spur.  The  apex  of  this  cone  is  really  formed  by  the 
edge  of  the  eastern  shoulder  of  the  mountain,  which  obscures  the  outline 


CAMP  VI  AND   STAIRCASE   PEAK. 


of  the  main  peak.  The  whole  cone  is  covered  with  ice,  above  whicli 
just  show  the  low,  little  accentuated  rocky  ridges  converging  to  the 
top.  The  wall,  at  a  very  steep  angle  of  inclination,  is  live  ice  for 
7,000  feet  up,  and  crowned  by  seracs.  It  is  absolutely  inaccessible. 
The  north-east  buttress  detaches  itself  from  the  broad  curving  shoulder, 
also  entirely  ice-covered,  and  takes  up  a  good  share  of  the  right  side 
of  the  valley,  wliich  is  rugged  with  teeth  and  rjendarmes  and  surmounted 
by  some  goodly  peaks,  and  ends  more  than  two  and  a  half  miles 
from  K^,  in  the  snowy  dome  which  Guillarmod  and  Wessely  attempted 
to  climb  from  the  Godwin  Austen.  At  no  point  of  the  entire  distance 
is  there  a  place  where  one  could  gain  the  ridge  directly  from  the  glacier. 
The  farthest  height,  at  the  head  of  the  valley,  is  Staircase  Peak 
(24,078  feet),  of  which  we  see  the  south-western  face,  a  rocky  vertical 


K-,  as  seen  from  the  east,  from  the  rocks  above  Car 


VI 


1/  (iriij;J  jvadi;  i»j<ri  vni  fium  jr.t.j  aril  nu-'  - 


Tlie  Uj)i)er  Godwin  Austen  Glacier.  •2i)9 

triangle  nearly  4,000  feet  high.  Between  it  and  the  ridge  that  runs 
toward  it  from  K-  is  another  glacial  basin,  which  empties  by  a  narrow 
mouth  into  the  Godwin  Austen  ;  it  is  like  the  basin  below  Broad  Peak, 
Ijut  much  smaller.  From  Staircase  Peak  to  Windy  Gap  a  rib  of  ice 
descends  by  a  series  of  steps  or  leaps,  its  side  traversed  by  glaciers  and 
furrowed  by  deep  channels  ;  and  this  rib,  together  with  Windy  Gap 
itself,  terminates  the  valley  of  the  Godwin  Austen.  From  our  camp 
we  can  see  neither  the  saddle  nor  the  left  wall  of  the  valley. 

20,981.  22,306. 


FIRST   STEP   OF   THE    GODWIN    AUSTEN   CL.VCIER,   .\ND   SELL.V    P.\SS. 

During  several  days  we  only  saw  this  or  that  portion  of  the 
panorama  I  have  described,  according  to  the  caprice  of  the  wind,  which 
would  tear  away  the  cloud  masses  here  and  there,  letting  in  a  rift  of 
sunlight  speedily  obscured  again  by  the  marshalling  of  the  cold  mists 
or  a  fresh  onset  of  snow  or  sleet.  I  have  already  mentioned  that  the 
Duke  had  noted  from  the  southern  ridge  of  K-  a  depression  in  the  circle 
of  mountains  around  the  amphitheatre  of  Broad  Peak,  and  had  formed 
a  project  of  climbing  up  to  it  for  a  glimpse  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Gasherbrums.  This  was  undertaken  on  June  loth.  The  depression 
is  in  the  northern  wall  of  the  amphitheatre,  between  peaks  22.306  and 
20,981  feet,  beneath  the  second  of  which  our  camp  was  stationed.     It 

(0-2-2\)  R  -2 


200  Chaj)ter  XV. 

was  necessary  to  round  the  base  of  this  peak  and  enter  the  gUicier  basin 
in  order  to  reach  the  l)ottoni  of  the  couloir,  by  which  one  coidd  ascend 
to  the  col.  Three  guides  accompanied  the  Duke.  They  found  the 
level  surface  of  glaciei'  filling  the  basin  to  be  cut  in  every  direction  by 
cracks  which  were  covered  over  with  treacherous  powdery  snow,  not 
firni  enough  to  walk  on.  They  had  hardly  got  past  the  entrance  when 
Alessio  Brocherel  broke  through  one  of  these  snow  bridges  and  fell 
heavily  into  a  fissure.  The  rope  went  taut,  giving  him  a  violent  wrench 
in  the  chest.  It  did  not  seem  at  the  time  to  be  more  than  an  ordinary 
incident  of  mountain  climbing,  not  serious  enough  to  interrupt  the 
march,  but  it  was  the  probable  cause  of  much  later  suffering  for  him. 
The  wall  itself  proved  to  have  a  good  layer  of  firm  snow,  upon  which 
the  party  could  ascend  with  the  crampons  without  needing  to  cut 
steps.  In  three  hours  they  reached  the  saddle,  about  2,000  feet  above 
camp.  By  good  fortune  the  air  was  clear,  as  well  as  the  sky  beyond  the 
col,  whereas  the  ranges  of  the  Godwin  Austen  were  largely  in  fog.  It 
was  impossible  to  stay  long  on  the  top,  because  of  the  intense  cold  and 
violent  wind,  but  before  returning  the  Duke  was  able  to  make  observa- 
tions of  many  details  of  the  region  east  of  the  saddle. 

In  order  to  avoid  repetition  later  on  I  will  interrupt  the  chronological 
narrative  here,  and  mention  a  second  visit  to  the  col,  made  by  Sella, 
with  one  of  the  porters  and  a  coolie,  seven  days  later,  on  June  22nd. 
He  went  beyond  the  ridge,  crossing  obliquely  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
mountain,  which  was  strewn  with  small  rocky  detritus  covered  by  a 
crust  of  thin  transparent  ice.  He  stopped  at  a  point  where  the 
Gasherbrum  range  came  into  view  on  the  south,  about  half  a  mile  from 
the  saddle  and  somewhat  lower  down  ;  and  here  he  took  panorama  F, 
from  a  ledge  on  the  ridge  that  runs  down  south-east  from  peak  22,339. 
It  was  a  labour  of  two  hours,  rendered  doid)ly  arduous  by  the  strong 
wind.  He  regained  the  col  with  some  difficulty,  having  to  contend 
with  squalls  of  fearful  severity.  Wonderful  to  say,  the  coolie  endured 
all  this  without  a  single  complaint.  With  the  help  of  panorama  F  it 
is  possible  to  get  an  idea,  if  not  of  the  topography,  at  least  of  the  general 
aspect  of  the  region  east  of  the  Baltoro  basin,  a  region  into  which  but 
one  single  explorer,  Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  has  ever  penetrated, 
and  he  only  for  a  short  distance,  in  1889. 

As  far  as  the  eye  can  see,  there  is  a  succession  of  glacier-filled  valleys 
and  rocky  and  snowy  chains.     One  can  neither  see  nor  guess  at  the 


The  Ui)por  Godwin  Austen  Glacier. 


261 


situation  of  the  lower  valleys,  where  there  must  be  torrents  and  rivers 
running.  From  the  jiass,  which  the  Duke  named  after  Vittorio  Sella, 
a  glacier  flows  southward  in  a  wide  valley,  bounded  on  its  right  by  an 
ice-covered  spur  radiating  from  one  of  the  peaks  of  the  amphitheatre, 
and  on  its  left  by  a  short  ridge  surmounted  by  a  fine  rocky  pyramid, 
which  detaches  itself  at  right  angles  from  peak  22,995  of  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Godwin  Austen.     As  far  as  could  be  judged  from  above,  the 


TERAM    KANGRI   FROM   THE    EASTERX   SIDE   OF   SELLA   PASS. 


descent  on  the  farther  side  of  Sella  Pass  did  not  look  difficult,  provided 
the  glacier  did  not  terminate  in  a  cascade  of  seracs.  This  pass  seemed, 
in  fact,  to  be  the  only  way  of  exit  from  the  Godwin  Austen  basin  that 
did  not  present  serious  obstacles. 

To  the  south  the  scene  is  dominated  by  a  group  of  splendid 
mountains,  among  which  are  the  eastern  peaks  of  the  Gasherbrums  I 
(Hidden  Peak),  II  and  III.  From  this  last  a  great  steep  spur  runs  out 
northward,  just  indicated  upon  our  map.  This  spur,  taken  together 
with  the  eastern  walls  of  Broad  Peak,  encloses  a  wide  valley  filled  with 

(9221)  R  3 


'262 


Chapter  W. 


a  broad  glacier  bare  of  moraine.  At  the  foot  of  the  col  this  glacier 
bends  to  the  north-east  to  mingle  with  another  and  even  larger  one, 
covered  with  moraine,  which  comes  down  east  of  the  great  ridge  of 
Gasherbrum  III  just  mentioned,  and  seems  to  flow  north-east,  gathering 
up  several  affluents  from  among  the  spurs  of  tlie  Gasherbrums,  on  its 
course  toward  a  distant  chain  of  lofty  mountains  laden  with  ice  and 
snow.     Three  peaks  of  this  chain,  marked  X,  Y  and  Z  on  the  panorama, 


STAIRCASE    PEAK    AND    THE    END   OK   THE    NOKTH ■EASTERN    SI'UR   OF   K ''. 

were  distinguished  by  the  Duke  from  Staircase  Peak,  as  I  shall  describe 
shortly.  Almost  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  behind  all  the  succession 
of  ranges,  rises  a  peak  of  evidently  exceptional  height.  Sella  took  the 
horizontal  angle  of  it  with  the  surveying  compass.  From  the  situation, 
shape  and  appearance  of  this  peak,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt 
that  it  is  Teram  Kangri,  the  mountain  discovered  and  measured  by 
Dr.  LongstafE  from  the  upper  Siachen  glacier  on  June  17th,  only  five 
days  before  Sella  photographed  it.^ 

I  will  now  resume  the  narrative  from  June  14th,  on  which  day  the 
Duke  had  sent  ahead  Sella,  Negrotto  and  myself  to  set  up  a  light  camp 
at  Windy  Gap.     Lorenzo  Petigax,  Emilio  Brocherel  and  twelve  coolies 

'  T.  G.  LoNGSTAFF,  Uhicitr  Exploration  in  the  Eastern  Karakoram.  Geog.  Jour.  35,  1910, 
p.  631.  See  also  a  note  by  Dr.  Longstaff  in  Alp.  Jour.  May,  1911  (vol.  29),  p.  488,  where  he 
gives  reasons  for  identifying  Teram  Kangri  with  the  peak  photographed  by  Sella. 


TIr-   Upper  Godwin  Austen  Glacier. 


263 


formed  our  escort,  and  we  were  roped  together  in  two  long  files.  The 
morning  was  cold  and  windy,  with  a  thick  atmosphere.  We  climbed 
up  the  left  side  of  the  glacier,  in  the  furrow  next  the  wall,  reaching  in 
a  few  minutes  the  top  of  the  second  level.  The  drop  of  the  glacier 
beside  us  was  cut  by  broad  crevasses,  typically  V-shaped,  with  the 
apex  pointing  downwards.  We  went  gradually  towai'd  the  centre  of 
the  valley  to  get  out  of  range  of  possible  avalanches  from  the  glaciers 


STAIRCASE    PEAK,    THE    END    OF   THE   NORTH-EASTERN    RIDUE   OF    K -,    ^VND    THE   OPENING 

OF   STAIRCASE    BASIN. 


hanging  on  the  steep  walls  of  the  left  side.  This  wall  runs  fairly 
straight,  without  marked  side  valleys,  and  has  only  two  peaks — 22,339 
and  22,995  feet  in  height — from  the  latter  of  which  a  rounded  rocky 
]'ib,  loaded  with  ice  and  snow,  descends  to  Windy  Gap.  The  other 
side  of  the  valley  is  formed  by  the  long  north-east  buttress  of  K-,  a 
sheer  precipice,  all  ice  and  perpendicular  cliffs.  It  ends  in  a  round 
snow-covered  shoulder,  above  which  towers  a  sharp  pinnacle  of  rock 
(peak  22,378  on  the  map).  At  the  foot  of  this  peak  our  predecessors 
had  set  up  their  Camp  XI;  and  thence,  on  July  10th,  1902,  Wessely 
and  Guillarmod  had  tried  to  gain  the  snowy  shoulder,  in  the  hope  of 
finding  a  route  to  K-  along  the  broken  and  slender  north-eastern  ridge. 

(9221)  R  4 


264  Chapter  XV. 

Guillarmod  relates  that  they  were  greatly  embarrassed  by  the  deep 
snow,  and  obliged  to  turn  back  after  getting  within  150  feet  of  the  top 
of  the  shoulder,  the  aneroid  barometer  showing  a  height  of  22,000  feet.  ^ 

Beyond  the  north-east  ridge  of  K-  the  valley  is  broken  into  by  the 
glacial  basin  of  Staircase  Peak.  This  basin  is  so  shut  in  by  high  and 
steep  walls  as  to  form  a  sort  of  pit  or  rather  an  enormous  trench. 
Pfannl  and  \\'essely  camped  inside  of  it,  and  climbed  up  a  gully  in  its 
western  wall  in  an  attempt  to  reach  a  depression  in  the  ridge,  whence 
they  might  be  able  to  examine  the  northern  side  of  the  north-eastern 
buttress  of  K-.  They  were  driven  back  by  falHng  stones  and  the 
steepness  of  the  ice.-  The  precipitous  walls  of  Staircase  Peak  close 
in  the  top  of  the  Godwin  Austen,  about  whose  summit  the  wind  was 
furling  and  unfurling  veils  of  mist. 

The  glacier  was  of  a  dense  whiteness,  without  briUiance.  Not  even 
on  the  broken  ice  of  its  walls  was  to  be  seen  any  of  the  blue-green  hue 
of  our  Alpine  glaciers.  The  weather  was  very  severe,  and  the  coolies 
suffered  bitterly.  AMienever  we  paused  they  shook  with  the  cold  and 
the  cruel  wind  that  penetrated  the  loose  folds  of  their  garments.  We 
were  nearly  at  the  level  of  the  Staircase  basin,  and  there  remained  only 
a  last  short  climb  between  us  and  the  little  flat  space  below  Windy  Gap. 
Here  the  coolies  stopjjed  and  piteously  implored  us  not  to  go  any  farther. 
One  of  them  flung  himself  weeping  on  the  snow,  pointing  to  his  aching 
head  and  numbed  feet.  We  had  his  shoes  and  stockings  taken  off  to 
make  sure  his  feet  were  not  frozen.  We  gave  him  some  caffeine  tablets 
and  coaxed  him  and  the  others  to  go  on,  less  in  words  than  by 
sympathetic  looks  and  tones,  and  by  pointing  out  the  near-by  goal.  We 
got  them  on  again  in  a  little.  As  a  matter  of  fact  we  were  never, 
throughout  the  expedition,  prevented  from  going  reasonable  distances 
by  any  illwill  or  rebellion  on  the  part  of  the  coolies,  and  we  learned 
from  experience  that  the  Baltis  are  much  more  susceptible  to  kindness 
and  persuasion  than  to  tlireats  or  violence. 

After  about  another  hour  of  walking,  at  an  easy  gait,  we  reached 
the  foot  of  the  last  slope,  above  100  feet  high,  and  in  ten  minutes  more 
we  were  on  the  rocks  of  the  saddle,  wliich  is  divided  into  two  unequal 

'  Comm.  Paganini  has  calculated  the  altitude  of  this  shoulder  from  four  photogrammctric 
stations  (X,  XIII,  XV  and  XVI  on  the  triangulation  sketch),  and  obtained  an  average  of  21,588 
feet.     According  to  this  the  height  reached  by  VVessely  and  Guillarmod  would  be  about  21,400  feet. 

*  See  the  article  by  Pfajtnl,  already  cited,  in  Zeit.  des  deut.  it.  oest.  Alpenver. 


The  Upper  God  win  Austen  Glacier. 


■jf,i, 


parts  by  a  small  rocky  tooth.  It  is  prolonged  on  one  side  by  the 
southern  ridge  of  Staircase  Peak,  and  on  the  other  by  the  rounded 
flanks  of  peak  22,995.  A  villainous  wind  was  blowing.  We  scarcely 
gave  a  glance  down  the  narrow  steep  valley  beyond  the  col,  through 
which  a  glacier  flows  to  enter  a  larger  valley.  Beyond  the  second  one 
rises  a  snow-covered  range.  There  was  no  place  on  the  col  to  set  up 
a  camp,  so  we  went  down  the  last  short  ascent  and  jjlaced  the  tents 
near  the  little  bergschrimd  at  its  foot. 


WINDY    U.VP. 


The  cooUes  went  back  at  once,  accompanied  by  Savoie,  who  for 
the  safety  of  the  party  entrusted  to  his  care  must,  of  course,  put  himself 
last  in  the  file.  The  question  was,  which  of  the  twelve  coolies  would 
be  brave  enough  to  march  at  the  head.  After  some  little  excitement 
one  of  them  volunteered,  and  they  started  off  in  their  usual  good 
humour. 

All  day  long  the  storm  wind  blew  furiously,  dri\dng  fine  grains  of 
ice  through  every  cranny  in  the  tents.  The  heights  were  all  covered. 
Later  on  the  wind  lessened  somewhat  and  snow  began  to  fall.  Most 
of  the  next  day,  June  15th,  we  spent  at  the  top  of  the  ridge,  Negrotto 
and  I  with  the  photogrammetric  apparatus  on  a  little  rocky  ledge  south 


266  Chaptor  W. 

of  the  col ;  and  Sella  on  the  other  side  at  the  foot  of  Staircase  Peak, 
with  his  photographic  equipment — all  three  of  us  waiting  in  a  cutting 
wind,  our  teeth  chattering,  stamping  our  feet  and  slapping  our  hands 
together,  indulging  the  vain  hope  that  the  sky  might  clear.  The 
temperature  was  not  lower  than  21°  F.  or  thereabouts ;  but  inactive  as 
we  were  in  the  face  of  that  piercing  wind,  our  suffering  was  acute.  The 
weather  played  with  us  for  hours,  partially  uncovering  now  one  peak, 
now  another.  But  toward  four  o'clock  it  grew  definitely  worse,  and 
drove  us  back  to  the  tent,  where  we  prepared  our  simple  meal.  A 
party  of  coolies,  under  the  escort  of  Savoie,  had  come  and  gone  during 
the  day  leaving  provisions  and  supplies. 

The  pass  well  deserves  the  name  of  Windy  Gap  given  it  by 
Guillarmod.  However,  T  should  mention  that  Pfannl  called  it  Grenz 
Battel  (Border  Saddle),  because  it  is  the  limit  of  the  hydrographic 
system  not  only  of  the  Baltoro  basin,  but  of  the  Indus  as  well.  Pfannl 
gives  it  a  height  of  20,550  feet,  much  nearer  our  figure  of  20,449  feet 
than  the  21,500  feet  given  on  Guillarmod's  map.  Dr.  Wessely  made  a 
short  expedition  to  the  col,  being  the  only  one  of  the  party  to  do  so. 
In  Pfannl's  sketch  a  precipitous  ice  wall  is  marked  to  the  north  of  it, 
and  at  its  base  a  large  glacier  running  westward,  beyond  which  is 
indicated  another  mountain  chain,  the  same  as  that  shown  on  our  map. 
From  the  route  traced  in  the  sketch  it  appears  that  Dr.  Wessely  went 
on  beyond  the  col,  continuing  .somewhat  toward  the  right  up  to  a  point 
marked  21,150  feet. 

As  if  maliciously,  the  weather  turned  fine  after  sunset.  The  sununit 
of  K'^  was  already  in  shadow,  but  from  the  lofty  cone  stood  up  an 
immense  volume  of  vapour,  more  than  3,000  feet  high,  with  wonderful 
whorls  outlined  against  the  sky,  gilded  by  the  sinking  sun,  whose  last 
rays  just  reached  its  topmost  part,  perhaps  32,000  or  33,000  feet  high. 

By  way  of  exception  the  fine  evening  did  not  prove  this  time  to  have 
been  a  false  prophecy,  and  on  rising  next  morning  we  were  dehghted 
to  behold  a  brilliantly  clear  sky.  We  lost  not  a  minute  in  returning 
to  the  ridge  of  the  col,  where  for  the  first  time  we  saw  the  entire  eastern 
face  of  K-  revealed  without  a  trace  of  mLst.  ^  It  looked  like  another 
mountain  entirely  ;  and  of  all  the  manifold  aspects  of  the  colossus 
this  is  certainly  the  most  imposing,  the  richest  and  boldest  in  design. 
Alas,  it  is  also  such  as  to  annihilate  the  last  remnant  of  hope  that  might 

'  See  panorama  G. 


The   U|)|KT  (lodwiii   Aiistoii   ( ilatitT, 


267 


linger  in  the  mind  of  the  mountaineer.  The  cone  itself  rises  from  a 
great  sloping  shoulder  entirely  covered  by  a  glacier  that  comes  down 
to  its  very  verge  and  breaks  abruptly  off,  forming  a  perpetual  menace 
to  all  the  ravines,  furrows  and  ridges  of  the  steep  wall  beneath.  The 
peak,  which  from  this  side  looks  very  sharp,  has  a  huge  icy  dome  or 
cap  coming  down  to  the  edge  of  a  formidable  vertical  descent  of  rock  ; 


^   }      --r 


.  /J 


K°   FROM    WINDY    GAP. 


and  to  this  the  chance  disposition  of  the  ice  and  the  hollows  and  pro- 
tuberances of  the  rock  have  given  the  semblance  of  a  grotesque  face, 
a  sort  of  demon  of  the  mountains.  Below  the  shoulder  to  the  south 
Is  visible  in  profile  the  crest  of  rock  first  tried  by  the  Duke ;  it  is  much 
steeper  than  it  looked  from  below  and  very  long.  The  north-western 
buttress  projects  toward  us,  very  sharp,  broken  and  rugged,  full  of 
needles  and  icy  pinnacles,  between  which  run  nortliward  the  curves 
of  long  and  ample  cornices.     If  he  had  seen  it  from  this  point.  Guillarmod 


268 


Chapter  XV. 


would  never  have  thought  of  choosing  it  as  a  route.  The  end  of  it  joins 
like  the  shaft  of  a  T  to  a  transversal  ridge  which  encircles  one  of  the 
sides  of  Staircase  basin. 

To  the  south-west  we  could  look  down  through  the  Godwin  Austen 
valley  as  far  as  the  point  where  it  bends  toward  the  Concordia.  From 
our  point  of  view  the  background  is  formed  by  the  right-hand  ridge 


MASHEEBRUM,  FROM  THE  HEAD  OF  THE  COUWIN  AUSTEN.   TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 


of  the  Savoia  glacier,  behind  which,  24  miles  away,  rises  Masherbrum 
Peak,  a  great  rocky  mountain,  extraordinarily  imposing,  terminating 
in  a  sharp  point.  On  the  left  all  the  summits  along  the  Godwin  Austen 
look  diminished  and  robbed  of  significance  by  the  ponderous  bulk  of 
Broad  Peak  ;  but  the  latter  is  balanced  on  the  north  by  the  magnificent 
icy  cliffs,  like  gigantic  steps,  running  from  the  saddle  to  the  dome  of 
Staircase  Peak.  This  impressive  formation  is  joined  by  an  almost 
horizontal  ridge  to  the  top  of  the  triangidar  wall  of  rock  that  faces  down 
the  valley. 


Tlie  Uj)pcr  (lodwiii   Austen  (jlacier. 


269 


We  are  now  in  a  position  to  satisfy  our  curiosity  more  completely 
with  regard  to  the  country  beyond  the  col  to  the  north-east.^  A 
glacier  descends  precipitously  at  our  feet,  falling  with  almost  vertical 
leaps  for  about  2,000  feet,  then  flowing  somewhat  less  steeply  to  empty 


PEAK  22,113,  EAST  OF  WINDY  G.VP.   TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 

upon  another  glacier,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  Godwin  Austen, 
covered  with  snow,  and  soon  disappears  from  view  in  a  south-easterly 
direction.  On  the  north  this  glacier  reaches  a  low  snowy  col  at  the 
base  of  the  eastern  wall  of  Staircase  Peak.'-     Its  left  wall  is  formed 


•  See  panorama  H. 

'  The  Duke  tliinks  it  possible  that  by  this  pass  one  might  attain  directly  to  the  glacier  which 
was  to  bo  soon  nouing  at  the  base  of  Sella  Pass,  coming  from  the  northern  side  of  K'. 


270  Chaj)ter  XA'. 

])y  a  chain  of  mountains  of  varied  design,  the  highest  of  them  being 
twin  peaks,  a  snowy  and  a  rocky  one  (22,113  feet).  The  chain  runs  from 
north-west  to  south-east,  and  at  half  its  distance  there  detaches  itself 
at  right  angles  a  branch  which  runs  to  join  the  eastern  ridge  of  Staircase 
Peak,  by  means  of  the  low  col  I  have  mentioned.  Finally,  above  and 
behind  this  screen  rise  here  and  there  the  peaks  of  still  another  chain, 
evidently  larger  and  more  important. 

By  half-past  seven  Negrotto  had  completed  a  photogrammetric 
panorama  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  col.  We  dismounted 
the  apparatus,  traversed  the  whole  length  of  the  ridge  of  the  col  and 
climbed,  partly  on  ice,  partly  on  rock,  to  the  foot  of  the  ridge  of . 
Staircase  Peak.  At  the  base  of  a  sort  of  turret  we  made  another  station 
on  a  little  level  cut  with  our  pickaxes  in  the  ice  near  the  cornice.  It 
was  from  these  two  panoramas  that  the  short  chain  north-east  of  Windy 
Gap  was  placed  upon  the  map.  We  got  down  directly  to  the  tents 
without  going  back  to  the  col  through  a  gully  full  of  ice  with  a  light 
covering  of  snow.  Sella  in  the  meantime  had  taken  panoramas  G 
and  H,  and  photographs  of  several  single  mountains.  The  three  guides 
and  seven  coolies  came  up  presently  from  the  camp  below. 

Our  work  at  Windy  Gap  was  finished,  and  we  prepared  to  return 
to  Camp  VI,  leaving  the  tents  behind  for  the  use  of  the  Duke.  He 
wished  to  make  the  ascent  of  Staircase  Peak,  not  so  much  as  a 
mountaineering  feat  as  because  it  was  evident  that  there  must  be  from 
the  top  an  excellent  view  of  its  own  north-western  slopes  and  those  of 
K^,  as  well  as  of  all  the  unknown  territory  lying  east  of  ^\'indy  Gap, 
Broad  Peak  and  the  Gasherbrums.  If  too  serious  obstacles  offered 
themselves  to  an  ascent,  it  might  still  be  possible  to  descend  to  the 
other  side  of  the  col  and  make  an  expedition  on  the  glaciers  eastward 
and  southward,  or  to  round  Staircase  Peak  to  a  ])oint  where  the  northern 
wall  of  K-  might  become  visible. 

We  had  been  wise  to  profit  by  the  earl}'  morning  hours,  for  it  now 
began  to  cloud  over  again.  We  returned  roped  together  in  three 
caravans,  one  formed  entirely  of  coolies.  They  had  been  quick  to  learn 
the  use  of  the  rope,  and  also  how  to  avoid  the  insidious  crevices. 
Whenever  we  had  once  persuaded  them  to  cover  new  ground,  they 
returned  to  it  with  a  good  will,  never  making  objections  even  when 
the  route  was  difficult.  The  reluctance  which  they  sometimes  showed 
was  never  laziness  or  obstinacy,  but  only  fear  of  the  unknown.     We 


Staircase  Peak,   from   W'iiuly  Gap 


qB>)  vbniV/    rnoil   .ylso*-!    jriroiiKJr; 


The  T])|)er  (lodwin   Austen  Glacier.  27i 

conquered  it  by  persuasion  and  example.  Severity  would  only  have 
made  the  case  worse. 

On  the  morning  of  June  17th  the  Duke  ascended  to  "Windy  Gap 
in  his  turn.  The  guides  had  reached  it  the  day  before,  and  on  that 
day  they  went  to  cut  a  long  stairway  in  the  ice  of  the  ridge  up  to  the 
first  terrace.  Unfortunately  it  began  to  snow  in  the  night  and  kept 
on  till  the  day  following,  making  all  their  work  in  vain.  On  the  19th 
the  weather  was  exceedhigly  uncertain,  but  the  Duke  went  up  the  first 
section  of  the  slope,  accompanied  by  the  guides.  At  the  edge  of  the 
plateau  rise  two  well-defined  towers,  which  show  plainly  in  panorama  G. 
It  had  begun  to  snow  again,  and  for  five  hours  the  party  waited, 
sheltering  themselves  as  best  they  could  in  the  lee  of  the  towers.  They 
saw  a  little  bird  hopping  about  on  the  rocks — it  seemed  lost  in  this 
desert  of  ice.  Finally,  they  had  to  give  up  and  go  back  to  the  tents. 
Alessio  Brocherel,  who  had  been  ailing  ever  since  his  fall  two  days 
before,  was  seized  with  exhaustion,  coughing  and  acute  pain  on  the 
right  side  of  the  chest,  and  the  Duke  thought  it  best  for  him  to  return 
at  once  to  Camp  VI,  with  Emilio  Brocherel  and  Savoie  as  escort. 

In  the  meantime  at  Camp  V  we  had  spent  the  three  days  to  no 
great  advantage.  On  the  18th  Negrotto  and  I  pushed  our  way  through 
a  labyrinth  of  crevasses,  which  obliged  us  to  retrace  our  footsteps 
continually,  as  far  as  the  centre  of  the  middle  level  of  the  Godwin 
Austen,  where  we  made  a  photogrammetric  station.  Sella  was  spending 
whole  days  of  patient  waiting,  renewing  the  experience  of  the  Ruwenzori 
expedition,  on  the  ledge  of  a  crest  some  2,000  feet  above  camp,  where, 
crouched  beside  his  machine,  he  watched  for  a  break  in  the  clouds. 
The  wind  kept  up,  cold  and  penetrating,  piercing  the  thickest  woollens 
one  could  put  on  ;  and  whenever  it  did  slacken  the  air  grew  sultry, 
and  we  experienced  such  reverberation  from  the  snow  and  fog  as  to 
sufter  more  from  it  than  from  the  unclouded  sun. 

The  coolies,  huddled  about  theu-  tiny  fires,  chanted  plaintive 
monotonous  little  ditties  half  under  their  breaths,  sometimes  accom- 
panying them  by  beating  time  on  the  empty  provision  tins.  They 
had  made  themselves  a  whole  cooking  outfit  with  the  tins  in  which 
the  food  came.  The  three  coolies  who  had  remained  with  Bareux  at  the 
base  camp  came  up  periodically  with  our  post  and  with  chupattis  and 
bundles  of  wood.  We  were  often  wakened  suddenly  at  night  with 
palpitating  hearts  by  the  terrible  noise  of  an  avalanche  from  Broad 


272  Chai)ter  XV. 

Peak.  The  echoes  would  reverberate  for  several  minutes  in  the  silence 
of  the  night  with  a  sound  like  cars  going  at  full  speed  over  uneven 
pavement  or  the  long  roar  of  a  passing  train. 

At  evening  on  the  19th  the  sky  was  more  obscured  and  shut  in  than 
ever,  and  heav}'  snow  began  to  fall  quietly  through  a  windless 
atmosphere.  The  thermometer  registered  19°  F.  Alessio  Brocherel 
suffered  all  night  long  from  a  dry  racking  cough,  which  aggravated 
the  strain  in  his  side.  He  had  scarcely  any  fever,  but  he  looked  weak 
and  worn  out.  In  the  absence  of  any  other  morbid  symptoms,  I  believe 
the  case  to  have  been  one  of  a  slight  and  linnuted  traumatic 
pleurisy,  caused  Ijy  the  wrench  from  the  rope  which  he  had  sustained  in 
his  fall. 

At  midday  on  the  20th  the  Duke  returned  to  camp.  He  had  not 
given  up  his  attempt,  but  it  seemed  wisest  to  wait  until  the  spell  of  bad 
weather  had  broken  and  the  guides  had  been  able  to  prepare  a  route 
on  the  ridge  of  Staircase  Peak,  or  eLse  downward  through  the  glacier 
east  of  Windy  Gap. 

Although  the  heavy  snowfall  had  not  sufficed  to  clear  the  sky  of 
clouds,  Negrotto  and  I  made  a  topographical  excursion  on  the  glaciei- 
as  far  as  the  basin  of  Staircase  Peak.  We  had  hardly  set  up  the 
instrument  when  the  whole  formidable  east  wall  of  K^  seemed  to 
disembarrass  itself  at  one  stroke  of  all  the  snow  that  had  fallen  in  the 
last  days,  and  an  immense  avalanche,  heralded  by  a  vast  white  cloud, 
flung  itself  down  for  nearly  10,000  feet  light  in  our  direction.  For  an 
instant  we  were  bewildered,  not  knowing  if  the  distance  would  be 
sufficient  to  break  the  force  of  this  tremendous  downfall.  But  its 
course  became  slower  directly  it  reached  the  level  of  the  glacier,  where 
it  opened  out  in  a  great  fan.  The  cloud  of  powdery  snow  filled  the 
entire  valley,  enveloping  us  even  where  we  stood  in  its  dense  folds, 
accompanied  by  an  actual  heavy  snowfall  which  lasted  several  minutes. 
It  was  almost  half  an  hour  before  the  air  cleared  sufficiently  for  us  to 
go  on  with  our  work. 

We  found  the  sun's  rays  very  intense  on  our  way  back  to  camp, 
and  there  was  a  powerful  reverberation  from  the  new  snow.  All  the 
surrounding  mountains,  as  though  they  had  been  awaiting  the  signal 
from  the  monarch,  shook  off  their  burdens,  which  came  down  in  streams, 
torrents,  rivers  of  the  purest  white,  and  heaped  themselves  up  at  the 
foot  of  the  walls.     After  a  brief  interlude  of  only  a  few  hours  the  weather 


The  Upper  Godwin  Austen  Glacier.  273 

grew  bad  again.  Broad  Peak,  always  the  first  to  condease  its  vapours, 
speedily  covered  itself  with  an  enormous  cap  ;  thick  stormclouds 
appeared  settling  down  over  all  the  hilLs  and  weighing  down  the  north- 
eastern buttress  of  K-  ;  and  to  the  west  was  displayed  the  "  mackerel 
sky  "  that  always  portends  bad  weather. 

On  June  23rd  the  Duke  again  rejoined  the  guides  at  AVindy  Gap. 
He  had  to  go  through  a  furious  storm  resembHng  in  character  the  polar 
drift.  There  were  in  all  five  guides  and  porters  with  him  at  Windy 
Gap — all  the  forces  except  Bareux,  Botta  and  Brocherel.  The  last, 
though  somewhat  better,  continued  very  weak.  The  guides  had  not 
been  able  to  do  much  work  in  the  interval.  They  were  driven  back  by 
the  wind  on  two  successive  days  from  the  ridge  of  Staircase  Peak,  not 
getting  farther  than  the  fijst  terrace.  They  were  of  opinion,  however, 
that  it  would  be  easy  to  find  a  route  up  to  the  second  stage  of  the  ascent, 
though  there  was  no  possibiUty  of  attaining  the  peak  in  less  than  three 
days,  which  meant  three  days  of  fine  weather,  a  condition  up  to  now 
without  a  precedent.  They  had  also  examined  the  steep  glacier  east 
of  the  saddle  and  had  planned  a  descent  on  its  right  margin.  The 
loads  would  have  to  be  let  down  through  a  steep  icy  well  at  the  left 
of  the  col,  a  very  dubious  undertaking  and  one  that  would  require  some 
days  of  work.  What  the  return  route  would  be  was  an  unsolved 
problem. 

On  the  morning  of  June  24th,  on  account  of  the  doubtful  look  of  the 
weather,  the  Duke  had  decided  to  give  up  the  ascent  and  try  the  way 
down  the  eastern  glacier  of  Windy  Gap.  But  a  change  for  the  better 
induced  him  to  return,  take  the  two  Mummery  tents,  four  slee})ing-bags, 
some  provisions  and  cooking  utensils,  and  set  off  with  all  speed  for  the 
ridge  of  Staircase  Peak.  He  went  up  the  sloping  ice  wall  toward  the 
two  rocky  towers  that  guard  the  edge  of  the  first  level,  crossing  over 
on  the  snow  just  below  these  to  reach  the  brow  of  the  terrace  or  little 
rolling  snowy  plateau,  upon  which  he  set  up  the  small  camp  in  a 
sheltered  hollow. 

The  two  Petigax  and  Enrico  Brocherel  stayed  with  him,  Emilio 
Brocherel  and  Savoie  returning  to  Windy  Camp.  During  the  night 
Enrico  Brocherel,  an  uncommonly  robust  man,  with  the  physique  of  an 
athlete,  was  taken  with  coughing,  from  no  apparent  cause,  had  pains 
in  the  breast,  and  spit  blood.  In  the  morning  he  wished  to  go  on  with 
the  others,   but  his  cough  grew   worse,   and   alarmed  by  the  unusual 

(9221)  s 


274  Chapter  X\'. 

symptoms  he  was  obliged  to  give  it  up.     The  illness  was  unexplainable, 
for  no  further  evil  results  followed,  and  later  on,  in  the  much  higher 
camps  of  Cliogolisa  Saddle,  he  always  felt  perfectly  well.     The  appear- 
ance of  clear  and  serene  weather  made  the  mishap  all  the  more  vexing. 
Despite  it,  the  Duke  did  not  hesitate  to  set  off  with  the  two  Petigax, 
with  the  intention  of  getting  as  far  as  possible  up  the  ridge.     They  wore 
two  sets  of  woollens  for  protection  against  the  stinging  cold,  and  their 
feet  and  legs  were  Avound  with  heavy  cloth  kept  in  place  by  the  straps 
from  the  crampons.     It  took  about  an  hour  to  cross  the  plateau,  full 
of  lai'ge  furrows  and  snowy  ridges.     Thence  they  climljed  the  gentle 
slope  to  the  foot  of  the  second  step  and  began  the  attack  upon  it.     It 
was  covered  with  dry  snow  with  the  bare  ice  shining  through  here  and 
there.     After  some  three  hours  of  work  with  the  pickaxes  they  reached 
a  point  very  near  the  top,  where  the  wall  began  curving  on  to  the  edge 
of  the  second  terrace.     Here  they  were  confronted  by  a  wide  crevasse, 
the  edges  of  which  were  particularly  unsafe  from  melting.     It  cut  the 
steep  slope  at  right  angles  in  such  a  way  that  its  upper  edge  was  several 
yards  higher  and  receded  by  about  the  same  amount  more  than  the 
lower.     The  guides  followed  along  the  edge  going  toward  the  left,  and 
Lorenzo,  standing  on  his  father's  shoulders,  tried  in  vain  to  gain  the 
upper  edge.     Then  they  went  to  the  right,  and  finally  found  a  spot 
where  the  edges  were  close  enough  together  to  permit  them  to  cross. 
But  once  beyond  it  they  found  themselves  on  a  strip  of  ice  only  a  few 
yards  across,  separating  them  from  another  huge  crevasse,  20  or  30  feet 
broad,  which  went  all  the  way  across  the  slope  to  where  the  side  walls 
went  down  right  and  left  into  the  valley.     There  was  no  getting  around 
this  obstacle ;  it  formed  an  absolute  barrier  to  fiu'ther  progress.     To  go 
all  the  way  aroimd  it  on  the  right  one  would  have  to  chmb  an  almost 
vertical  wall  of  hve  ice  exposed  to  falls  of  threatening  seracs.     It  might 
be  possible  to  pass  it  on  the  left  by  chmbing  on  the  rocks  some  700  feet 
below    the    ridge.      Midday    was    already    at    hand,    and   it   would    be 
necessary  to  make  a  camp  and  begin  again  the  next  day.     Added  to 
all  this  the  Duke,  for  the  first  and  only  time  in  the  campaign,  felt  very 
weary,   and   the  endurance  of  young  Lorenzo  was  sorely  taxed.     As 
for    his   father,    Criuseppe,    this    indomitable    man    appeared   insensible 
to  altitude,  to  cold  or  to  fatigue.     He  was   never  found  wanting  or 
known   to  feel  a  moment  of  weakness  throughout  all  the  campaigns 
upon  which  he  accompanied   the   Duke,  and   probably  found  a  source 


Tlif   Upper  (jlodwin  Austen  Glacier.  275 

of   strength  in   the  silent   devotion  which   he    manifested   toward  our 
leader. 

Rather  than  waste  the  time  in  doubtful  trials,  to  gain,  perhaps, 
another  hundred  yards,  the  Duke  determined  to  derive  the  utmost 
profit  from  the  work  already  accomplished,  by  making  a  thorough 
observation  of  the  wide  horizon  which  his  present  station  (21,650  feet 
high)  enabled  him  to  embrace.  He  had  a  splendid  view  of  K-,  which 
always  showed  itself  more  lofty,  more  threatening  and  more  inaccessible 
the  higher  one's  point  of  \aew,  as  if  to  mock  at  any  competition  with 
itself.  The  photograph  which  the  Duke  took  of  it  that  morning  from 
the  shelter  camp,  reproduced  in  the  frontispiece  of  this  book,  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  picture  of  K^  boasted  by  the  expedition. 

From  his  station  on  the  ridge  the  Duke  took  panorama  I,  which  is 
important  from  the  illustrative  as  well  as  from  the  geographical  point  of 
view.  As  usual  K-  dominates  the  scene,  showing  its  terminal  cone  in 
its  true  proportions,  covered  with  a  heavy  coat  of  ice  on  the  east  and 
south,  and  having  a  steep  smooth  angle  of  rock  on  the  north,  which  ends 
more  than  3,000  feet  below  the  summit  by  merging  into  the  northern 
wall.  The  latter  falLs  precipitously  behind  the  north-east  ridge, 
certainly  the  nearest  to  the  perpendicular  of  all  the  faces  of  the  mountain. 
Farther  off  and  lower  down  another  rocky  ridge  shows  itgelf  against 
the  sky,  in  all  probability  part  of  the  smaller  north-western  ridge  that 
runs  down  to  Savoia  Pass.  If  so,  the  Duke  had  now  completed  the 
circuit  of  exploration  of  K-.  He  might  now  abandon  the  struggle  in 
the  consciousness  that  he  had  left  undone  nothing  within  human  power 
to  convince  himself  of  the  impossiblity  of  the  undertaking. 

The  Godwin  Austen  valley,  which  looked  so  broad  when  we  were 
going  through  it,  shows  in  the  panorama  a  mere  cut  or  gorge  between 
the  walls  of  K^  and  Broad  Peak.  Masherbrum  in  the  distance  has  lost 
much  of  its  imposing  appearancie.  Gasherbrum  I  and  II  are  just  visible 
behind  the  left  wall  of  the  Godwin  Austen  valley. 

Toward  the  east  comes  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  panorama, 
geographically  speaking.  The  short  chain  of  which  Negrotto  made 
a  survey,  and  which  appears  on  our  map,  has  sunk  down  quite  low,  the 
southern  summits  just  showing.  On  the  other  hand  the  lofty  chain, 
some  peaks  of  which  were  to  be  seen  from  Windy  Gap  showing  behind 
the  nearer  range,  now  reveals  itself  in  its  entirety.  It  was  possible, 
thanks  to  the  three  characteristic  peaks  marked  X,  Y  and  Z  on  the 

(9221)  s  2 


276  Chapter  X\'. 

panorama,  to  identify  this  chain  with  the  one  which  extends  on  the 
left  in  Sella's  panorama  F,  taken  on  June  22nd  from  behind  the  eastern 
ridge  of  the  Godwin  Austen.  The  glacier  which  flows  eastward  at  the 
base  of  Windy  Gap  empties  after  a  short  course  into  another  larger 
one,  almost  free  of  moraine ;  and  of  this  glacier  one  sees  a  tiny 
triangular  portion  in  panorama  I,  apparently  flowing  south-east.  By 
comparing  the  two  panoramas  F  and  I  one  can  see  that  this  glacier 
must  join  the  large  one,  entirely  covered  with  loose  moraine,  of  which 
one  sees  a  stretch  in  panorama  F,  and  to  which  contribute  a  large 
number  of  affluents  from  the  eastern  wall  of  Broad  Peak  and  the 
Gasherbrums.  ^ 

Having  finished  their  observations  the  little  party  quickly  returned 
to  the  shelter  tents.  Shortly  afterwards  they  were  joined  from  below 
by  the  two  porters,  and  with  their  help  descended  to  Windy  Gap,  taking 
the  small  quantity  of  luggage.  They  all  rested  next  day — Lorenzo 
Petigax  still  feeling  some  fatigue,  and  also  Enrico  Brocherel.  The 
former  had  a  slightly  frost-bitten  foot.  On  the  27th  the  Duke  sent  these 
two  to  the  base  camp  with  EmiUo  Brocherel,  and  on  the  28th  he  himself 
left  Windy  Gap  and  rejoined  the  rest  of  the  party. 

^  In  Chapter  XIX  I  have  tried  to  correlate  the  observations  of  the  Duke  on  the  region  east 
of  the  Baltoro  with  those  of  the  only  other  explorer  of  these  parts,  Col.  Sir  Francis  Younghusband. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


FROM  THE  BASE  OF  K^'TO  THE  FOOT  OF  BRIDE  PEAK. 
THE    UPPER    BALTORO    GLACIER. 

K  •  as  surveyed  by  the  Exjiedition.  —  Lanfafahad,  Chiring  or  Chogo  ?  —  Weather  during  June  — 
Early  Monsoon  of  the  Karakoram.  —  Bride  Peak,  the  new  Goal  of  the  Duke.  —  Return  to 
Base  Camp.  —  Changes  in  the  Glaciers  and  Mountains.  —  The  Camp  moved  to  Concordia.  — 
Sella's  Work.  —  The  Duke  sets  out  for  Bride  Peak.  —  Moraines  of  the  Southern  Branch  of 
the  Baltoro.  —  Camp  at  the  Foot  of  (Jolden  Throne. —  Landslides  and  Avalanches. — 
Hidden  Peak  and  the  Eastern  Slopes  of  Bride  Peak.  —  Mustagh  Tower.  —  Weather  during 
July.  —  Melting  of  the  Glaciers.  —  The  Snow  Limit.  —  Sunsets. 


Our  work  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  K^  and  the  glacier  basin  of 
the  Godwin  Aasten  was  at  an 
end.  The  Duke  had  explored 
the  mountain  in  detail,  its 
glaciers  and  surrounding  ranges 
on  the  south,  west  and  east  ; 
he  had  seen  and  photographed 
the  outhne  of  its  northern  wall, 
perhaps  the  most  precipitous  of 
all.  Despite  unfavourable  atmo- 
spheric conditions,  despite  the 
mists  and  fogs  that  persistently- 
covered  the  peaks  and  walls, 
Sella  and  Negiotto,  by  taking 
advantage  of  every  brief  interval 
of  fair  weather,  had  succeeded  in  getting  views  of  the  valleys  and 
mountains  about  the  monarch,  and  in  completing  a  network  of  photo- 
grammetric  panoramas  and  of  angles  read  on  the  tacheometer. 

(0:221)  s  3 


278 


Chapter  \\\. 


K°  now  stood  revealed  in  detail,  and  it  became  possible  to  make 
accurate  drawings  of  its  outlines,  its  ridges  and  the  inclination  of  its 
walls.  The  mountain  is  a  quadrangular  pyramid,  the  corners  being 
formed  by  four  main  crests  meeting  at  right  angles — the  south-west 
and  north-cast,  the  north-west  and  south-east.  The  first  two  are 
prolonged  in  long  and  powerful  buttresses,  proportionate  in  size  to  the 
mass    which    they    sustain.     The    other    two    are    cut    oft'    short    and 


K=   FKOM   THE    SOLTH. 


precipitously — one  at  Savoia  Pass,  the  other  at  the  shoiUder  of  the 
mountain,  where  it  divides  into  a  southern  and  an  eastern  branch. 
These  four  ridges  outline  irregidar  walls,  which  are  orientated  to  the 
four  cardinal  points  and  are  cut  by  secondary  ridges.  The  western  and 
northern  faces  are  rocky.  The  southern  is  likewise  rocky,  but  the  De 
Filippi  glacier  runs  across  it  obhquely.  The  eastern  face  is  all  armed 
with  ice,  and  has  a  great  shoulder  two-thirds  of  the  way  up,  upon  which 
the  terminal  peak  rears  itself,  a  cone  over  3,000  feet  high. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  K-,  from  whatever  point  one  looks  at  it,  has 
one  peak  and  one  only.  It  is  not  clear  how  some  observers  can  have 
managed  to  see  two.     In  Drew's  book^  is  a  drawing  of  K^  seen  from 

•  F.  Drew,  Jummoo  and  Kashmir.     2nd  ed.     London  1877.     p.  370. 


»«^^ 

^ 


The  Peak  of  K^  seen  fn»in  the  south 


m 


iIjuo^  yfil  linn]  naae  ,->I  \o  Jr'jT  jiIT 


From   K  '  to   liride  Peak.  279 

the  south-west  from  more  than  62  miles  away,  showing  it  witli  two 
distinct  points  divided  by  a  broad  saddle.  Sir  Martin  Conway  also 
believed  ho  liad  seen  a  twin  peak.  On  the  other  hand,  Godwin  Austen 
distinctly  affirmed  the  contrary,  and  he  was  right.  ^  It  is  perhaps 
the  great  eastern  shoulder  seen  from  certain  points  of  view  that  has 
created  the  false  impression. 

I  know  no  other  mountain  which  has  such  diverse  as2)ectvS  when  seen 
from  its  different  sides.  The  plates  showing  it  from  west,  south,  east 
and  north-east-  display  its  extraordinary  variety  of  form,  and  show, 
too,  how  all  its  sides  are  equally  fortified  wath  the  most  formidable 
defences  against  the  attack  of  the  mountain  climber.  After  weeks  of 
examination,  after  hours  of  contemplation  and  search  for  the  secret 
of  the  mountain,  the  Duke  was  finally  obliged  to  yield  to  the  conviction 
that  K^  is  not  to  be  chmbed.  Its  height  is  not  a  factor  in  the  case. 
It  is  the  obstacles  peculiar  to  mountain  climbing  and  famiUar  to  the 
mountaineer  that  close  the  paths  of  ascent  to  K^.  I  know  how  hard 
it  is  to-day  to  win  belief  for  a  statement  of  the  inaccessibihty  of  a 
mountain  without  the  most  exhaustive  evidence.  And  I  hasten  to  add 
that  such  a  sentence  applies  to  K-  not  altogether  in  an  absolute  sense, 
but  very  much  as  a  result  of  the  remote  situation  of  the  giant,  the 
impossibility  of  camping  near  its  base  for  more  than  a  few  weeks,  and 
finally  the  unfavourable  cUmatic  conditions.  If  K-  were  in  the  Alps 
it  is  possible  that  a  siege  of  several  years  would  end  in  conquest, 
provided  that  the  height  did  not  form  per  se  a  physiological  obstacle 
not  to  be  overcome.  Step  by  step  a  way  would  be  gained  up  one  of 
the  ridges — ropes  and  refuges  would  be  placed.  The  giant  would 
probably  claim  its  victims,  but  in  the  end  would  yield  perhaps  to 
repeated  assaults. 

The  Baltis  gave  us  a  new  name  for  K-,  as  they  had  done  also  to  oui" 
predecessors.  They  appeared  to  agree  in  calUng  it  Lanfafahad  or 
Lanpapahad.  They  were  equally  unanimous  in  sjwaking  of  it  to 
Conway  under  the  designation  Chiring.  while  to  Guillarmod  they  called 
it  Chogo.  The  last  is  common  to  various  peaks  of  the  Karakoram. 
There  is  only  one  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  all  these  names — that 
K-  has  had  none  given  it  by  the  natives.     The  fact  is  not  surprising. 


*  See  Geog.  Jimr.  3,  1894,  pp.  431  and  527. 

'  Compare  Plates  opposite  pp.  232,  248,  258,  288  and  frontispiece. 
(9221)  s  4 


280  Cliapter  X\\. 

Rather  it  would  be  strange  if  the  natives  who  live  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Karakoram,  who  have  left  unchristened  numberless  peaks  which  they 
see  every  day,  had  had  the  idea  of  giving  a  name  to  a  particular  one 
six  days'  journey  from  their  villages  beyond  the  much-dreaded  glaciers, 
in  a  region  to  which  they  have  been  dragged  solely  by  the  insatiability 
of  European  curiosity.  The  brothers  Schlagintweit  made  a  vain  search 
for  a  native  name  both  in  Baltistan  and  Turkestan,  and  afterwards 
proposed  the  name  of  Depsang,  because  they  had  had  so  splendid  a 
view  of  the  mountain  from  the  plateau  of  that  name  near  the 
Karakoram  pass.  K-  is  actually  indicated  by  this  name  in  various 
atlases,  chiefly  German  ones.  It  has  not,  however,  so  far  as  I  know, 
any  official  sanction.  It  is  strange  that  others  among  the  many  visitors 
to  the  Karakoram  pass,  either  before  or  after  the  Schlagintweits,  do  not 
mention  having  seen  K*  from  there  or  the  vicinity,  not  even  those  who 
have  given  us  a  minute  description  of  the  view. 

During  the  whole  month  we  had  spent  on  the  Godwin  Austen  the 
weather  had  been  exceedingly  unfavourable.  Only  once  did  we  have 
three  consecutive  days  of  good  weather.  The  wind  blew  almost 
constantly  from  the  west  and  south-west,  and  grew  stronger  and  colder 
the  higher  up  we  went.  We  had  frequent  though  not  very  heavy 
snowstorms.  It  was  seldom  that  the  air  remained  clear  or  the  peaks 
uncovered  for  a  whole  day  at  a  time.  With  the  exception  of  one  single 
occasion,  and  then  only  for  a  few  hours,  we  never  found  ourselves  on  a 
level  with  or  above  the  mists  and  clouds.  They  were  always  very  high, 
like  the  wind,  from  23,000  feet  up.  The  usual  classification  of  the 
clouds  into  nimbus,  cumulus,  cirrus  and  stratus,  based  on  the  shapes 
assumed  at  various  heights,  holds  good  for  the  Karakoram,  by  putting 
each  type  some  7,000  feet  farther  up. 

The  regular  persistence  of  the  wind  points  to  the  conclusion  that 
it  must  be  the  monsoon,  which  would  be  blowing  very  high  up  during 
this  month.  We  followed  for  whole  days  the  rapid  course  of  mists  and 
clouds  1,000  feet  above  the  peak  of  K-,  when  in  the  valleys  the  air 
would  be  cabn.  This  may  explain  the  fact  that  in  Kashmir  and  the 
Punjab  plain  one  is  not  conscious  of  the  monsoon  before  July  and 
August,  when  it  blows  much  lower,  hurling  itself  against  the  barrier 
of  the  Himalaya.  If,  as  meteorologists  consider,  the  monsoon  is  caused 
by  the  super-heated  air  of  the  desert  of  Gobi  and  the  other  arid  Asiatic 
regions,  when  the  sun  is  north  of  the  equator,  it  is  natural  that    the 


From  K  '  to  liride  Peak.  281 

consequent  reverse  current  of  air  would  be  apparent  earlier  in  the 
Karakoram  than  in  the  far-off  plains.^ 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  it,  the  persistent  bad  weather  imposes 
a  fatal  obstacle  upon  the  mountain  chmber.  The  fresh  snow,  falling  at 
such  frequent  intervals,  covers  the  rocks  with  a  permanent  crust  of 
ice  (verglas).  Moreover,  it  never  has  a  chance  to  soMdify  on  the  walls 
or  the  glaciers,  thus  there  is  no  season  when  one  is  safe  from  avalanches 
nor  when  the  crevasses  are  covered  with  firm  snow.  Yet  after  all,  in 
the  month  of  June,  the  worst  enemy  is  indubitably  the  wind,  which 
blows  up  continual  tourmentes  and  makes  the  cold  well  nigh 
unendurable. 

I  have  said  that  all  the  explorers  of  the  vatious  regions  of  the 
Karakoram  suffered  like  ourselves  from  the  inclemence  of  the  weather. 
But  I  ought  to  mention  that  in  1908  the  Workmans  enjoyed  two  months 
(July  and  August)  of  almost  uninterrupted  fair  weather,  with  clear 
warm  days.  From  this  fact  explorers  may  draw  encouragement  to  plan 
new  expeditions  to  the  Karakoram. 

Though  our  work  about  K-  was  finished,  the  Duke  had  no  intention 
of  making  an  end  of  the  campaign.  He  did  not  give  up  the  hope  of 
climbing  some  other  peak  of  the  region  which  should  be  higher  than 
any  altitude  yet  attained,  thus  satisfying  what  had  been  the  chief 
purpose  of  the  expedition.  The  encouraging  features  were  the  fact  that 
the  season  was  not  yet  far  advanced,  the  excellent  record  the  guides 
had  made  on  the  high  slopes,  and  the  good  health  we  were  all  in,  for 
beyond  a  certain  amount  of  loss  of  flesh,  accompanied  by  a  shght 
diminution  of  strength  and  powers  of  resistance,  none  of  us  seemed 
really  the  worse  for  our  life  above  16,500  feet.  Alessio  Brocherel,  indeed 
— the  most  experienced  guide  we  had  after  Giuseppe  Petigax — lost  so 
much  by  his  few  days'  illness  and  seemed  so  weakened,  that  he  could 
not  be  depended  upon  for  the  rest  of  the  campaign.  The  experience 
of  those  who  had  come  before  us  was  to  the  effect  that  in  the  month  of 

1  Sib  a.  Cunnogham  (Ladakh  and  Surrounding  Countries.  London  1854)  asserts  on  the 
authority  of  A.  Gerard  and  of  his  brother,  J.  Cunningham,  that  in  Ladakh  and  Baltistan  the 
wind  blows  all  the  year  round  from  west  or  south-west,  without  the  alternation  of  the  soutli-west 
(summer)  monsoon  with  the  north -ea.«t  (winter)  one.  The  author  found  that  in  Ladakh  there 
is  a  daily  alternation,  a  steady  breeze  blowing  from  the  north  at  night,  whieh  at  dawn  shifts  to 
the  north-east  and  during  the  day  veers  to  south-west  or  west — probably  a  wind  entiifly  un- 
connected with  the  monsoon  and  caused  by  the  local  daily  radiation  duo  to  the  high  solar  tempera- 
ture of  the  plateaus.  \Vc  observed  nothing  similar  in  the  Karakoram,  conditions  being  absent 
which  could  give  rise  to  this  periodic  oscillation. 


282  Chapter  XVI. 

July,  now  close  at  hand,  weather  even  more  unpropitious  than  that  of 
June  was  only  to  be  expected.  But  this  prospect  was  not  definite 
enough  to  put  an  end  to  the  campaign. 

The  great  difficulty  lay  in  the  choice  of  the  mountain.  The  mere 
sight  of  that  immense  cordon  by  which  we  were  surrounded  was  enough 
to  put  the  mountain  climber  into  a  mental  state  of  awe  and  doubt.  All 
the  peaks  between  26,000  and  27,000  feet  were  of  such  formidable  aspect, 
that  it  seemed  impossible  to  plan  an  ascent  giving  any  reasonable  hope 
of  a  successful  issue.  The  Duke  was  driven  by  sheer  necessity  to  turn 
his  thoughts  toward  Golden  Throne  and  Bride  Peak,  the  snowy 
mountains  which  rise  at  the  end  of  the  southern  arm  of  the  Baltoro. 
The  first,  with  its  mighty  glaciers  and  slopes  of  moderate  inchnation, 
Sir  Martin  Conway  had  already  essayed.  But  it  is  only  23,590  feet 
high,  almost  400  feet  lower  than  Kabru  in  Kinchinjunga,  which  had 
been  ascended  two  veai's  before  by  the  Norwegians  Rubenson  and 
Monrad  Aas.  There  remained  Bride  Peak,  25,110  feet  high,  as  yet 
untried,  and  possessing  the  great  advantage  that  it  had  been  selected 
as  a  trigonometric  point  and  measured  by  the  Indian  Trigonometrical 
Survey.  From  our  camp  we  had  looked  with  admiration,  almost 
amounting  to  desire,  at  the  beautiful  outline  of  this  peak.  The  great 
nortliern  wall  seemed  to  show  an  easy,  if  tedious  route  to  the  summit. 

The  ascent  of  Bride  Peak  was  decided  upon  as  early  as  June  22nd, 
and  the  Duke  liad  discussed  with  us  the  mode  of  carrying  it  into 
execution.  On  the  23rd,  while  he  set  off  in  violent  weather  to  Windy 
Gap  for  his  second  attempt  upon  Staircase  Peak,  Sella  went  down  to  the 
base  camp  at  the  foot  of  K^,  taking  with  him  Alessio  Brocherel,  and 
assisting  him  on  the  way.  On  the  morrow  Negrotto  and  I  broke  up  the 
intermediate  camp,  leaving  a  single  tent  for  the  use  of  whoever  came 
up  later  to  get  the  luggage  from  the  camp  at  Windy  Gap.  We,  Botta, 
Bareux  and  fifteen  coohes,  then  joined  Sella  at  the  base  camp. 

We  descended  the  incline  below  the  camp  by  a  much  more  tortuous 
route  than  on  our  ascent,  because  the  numerous  crevasses  were  all  laid 
bare  by  the  melting  of  the  snows.  This  passed,  we  stood  astonished 
before  the  great  alteration  which  time  had  worked  in  the  glacier.  The 
melting  process  had  gone  on  vigorously.  Over  the  surface  were 
sprinkled  little  clear  blue  lakes  and  a  network  of  rivulets  ran  everywhere. 
Two  large  and  ancient  avalanches  from  K^  had  spread  great  expanses 
of  rugged  snow,  each   of  them  some  half  a  mile  broad  and  grey  with 


From   Iv  -  to  liride  Peak.  283 

dust  and  detritus,  obliquely  across  the  glacier,  almost  to  the  foot  of 
Broad  Peak.  Everywhere  else  the  ice  was  bare  and  corroded  by  fusion. 
The  front  of  the  De  FiUppi  glacier  was  much  lower,  and  the  seracs  along 
it,  unevenly  melted  by  the  sun,  had  taken  on  fantastic  shapes.  Below 
it  the  centre  of  the  Godwin  Austen  was  filled  with  a  broad  moraine 
between  the  band  of  green  seracs  at  the  foot  of  the  rocks  of  Broad  Peak 
and  the  wide  front  of  the  Savoia  glacier.  The  surface  of  this  latter  was 
all  grey  with  dust. 

The  hollow  where  the  base  camp  had  been  was  shallower  than 
before,  owing  to  the  flattening  of  the  surface  of  the  glacier.  The  walls 
of  the  chains  could  now  be  seen  from  it  almost  to  their  bases.  The 
mountains,  divested  of  their  thick  coating  of  snow,  seemed  shrunken 
and  lean,  and  their  glaciers  were  confined  within  ribs  of  rock.  Live 
ice  gleamed  from  all  the  gullies.  The  Vigne  glacier  had  been  very 
white ;  now  it  wound  up  its  broad  valley  in  stripes  of  moraine.  Only 
Bride  Peak  and  its  satellites  had  kept  their  whiteness  unsullied.  The 
former,  on  its  northern  wall,  is  cut  with  crevasses,  betrayed  by  their 
deeper  shadow  ;  they  must  be  of  enormous  size.  On  the  rocks  back 
of  the  camp  some  lean  tufts  of  grass  had  sprung  up. 

The  day  ended  in  a  sunset  of  indescribable  beauty.  Now  that  we 
hiul  accepted  our  defeat,  the  movmtain  seemed  to  throw  off  its  hostility 
and  become  serene  once  more.  We  could  not  see  the  western  sky  for 
the  south-western  spur  of  K^,  at  whose  feet  we  were  ;  but  the  southern 
heavens  seemed  to  mirror  ever}'  ray  of  the  declining  sun.  Perhaps 
Bride  Peak  acted  as  a  reflector  to  fling  back  the  western  light.  The 
pale  blue  sky  became  softly  tinged  with  rose,  then  turned  a  delicate 
mauve,  to  end  in  a  metallic  turquoise,  hke  tempered  steel.  The  great 
snowy  wall  showed  a  pale  saffron,  then  a  waxen  pallor  like  a  tea-rose, 
then  a  deep  pure  white.  There  was  no  violent  colour.  The  splendour 
of  the  summer  skies  in  the  Alps,  which  tint  the  snows  with  j)urple,  gold 
and  red,  was  all  quite  lacking  here.  One  by  one  the  light  left  the 
surrounding  heights,  forsaking  last  of  all  the  three  great  summits  of 
Broad  Peak.  Finally,  the  tranquil  moonlight  and  a  piofound  stillness 
and  peace  reigned  over  the  scene. 

The  sunrises  of  this  region  are  even  more  dehcately  coloured  than 
its  sunsets.  The  brilliantly  pure  light  merely  increases  in  intensity, 
the  sky  has  a  clear  gleaming  pallor,  and  there  is  not  a  tinge  of  colour 
reflected  anywhere  upon  the  snows. 


284  Chapter   \\\. 

The  present  fair  weather,  for  the  one  and  only  time  during  our  stay 
on  the  Baltoro,  was  unbroken  for  three  days.  We  proceeded  in  this 
time  with  the  carrying  out  of  the  Duke's  plans.  On  June  25th  Sella 
left  us  at  the  base  camp  and  went  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Godwin 
Austen,  taking  with  him  Botta  and  fifteen  loaded  coolies.  He  sent  l)ack 
the  latter  directly,  and  on  the  day  following  they  made  the  journey 
down  and  back  a  second  time,  a  march  of  nearly  nine  hours.  We 
rewarded  this  extra  work  and  their  docility  in  performing  it  by  some 
presents  of  biscuits,  a  little  tea  and  sugar,  chocolate  or  butter,  all  of 
which  we  had  gradually  persuaded  them  to  accept.  We  were  astonished 
to  have  some  of  them  ask  for  soap  and  wash  themselves,  nearly 
nude  for  the  purpose,  in  the  icy  rivulet  between  the  camp  and  the 
moraine. 

On  the  27th  we  made  the  last  photogrammetric  station  on  the 
Godwin  Austen,  at  a  point  below  the  mouth  of  the  Savoia  glacier.  This 
done,  we  sent  fourteen  coolies  up  to  the  intermediate  camp,  under  the 
escort  of  Bareux.  Next  day  they  went  on  to  Windy  Gap  to  bring 
down  the  equipment  of  the  high  camp.  That  afternoon  the  fine  weather 
showed  signs  of  breaking.  Light  flakes  of  mist  came  and  went  on  the 
ridges,  grew  more  permanent,  and  by  sunset  the  whole  sky  was  dotted 
with  clouds.  Next  morning  it  was  snowing.  Enrico  Brocherel, 
Giuseppe  Petigax  and  Savoie  came  down  in  the  forenoon  and  the  Duke 
in  the  afternoon  in  one  stage  from  Windy  Gap.  Finally,  towards 
evening  our  party  was  increased  by  the  arrival  of  twenty-three  coolies 
from  Rdokass,  the  Duke  having  sent  for  them  to  help  carry  the  camp 
to  Bride  Peak. 

The  storm  continued  all  the  next  day,  the  29th ;  but  the  Duke  set 
off  for  the  Concordia  notwithstanding  with  the  guides  and  all  the  coolies. 
Only  Bareux  and  Alessio  Brocherel  stayed  with  us ;  the  latter  had 
given  us  some  anxiety  after  his  return  to  the  base  camp.  His  cough 
and  the  pain  in  the  chest  had  come  on  again,  accompanied  by  a  slight 
feverishness.  Then  he  began  to  improve  to  such  an  extent  that  we 
thought  he  might  be  taken  down  to  Concordia  by  the  next  day.  We 
made  a  sort  of  chair  with  the  long  alpenstocks  and  one  of  the  load- 
carriers,  upon  which  he  might  be  carried  on  the  level  stretches.  That 
evening  all  the  coolies  were  once  more  united  at  the  camp,  fi-isking  and 
playing  like  children,  undepressed  by  the  lowering  weather  and  heavy, 
gloomy  sky. 


Bride  Peak,   from   Camp   III 


Ill    '[fnr;  )   rrirn}   .jIusH   ^biifJ 


Kroni   K  "■  to  Bride  Peak.  285 

^Ve  were  up  betimes  on  the  30th,  and  finished  breakiDg  up  camp 
in  a  heavy  snowfall.  The  air  was  still.  Foiu'  cooUes  were  told  off  to 
carry  Brocherel's  chair,  and  we  had  all  the  others  start  off,  ourselves 
following.  After  getting  on  the  moraine  we  turned  back  for  a  last  look 
at  the  spot  which  had  been  our  shelter  for  the  past  month  and  more. 
It  had  never  looked  so  forlorn  as  now.  The  heavy  snow  obliterated  in  a 
short  time  all  traces  of  the  camp  that  had  once  stood  there.  One  of 
our  friendly  crows  was  perched  on  the  little  level — his  companions  had 
all  deserted  us  some  days  before. 

We  went  on  very  slowly,  as  Brocherel  was  with  us,  covering  on  foot 
the  distance  across  the  two  moraine  ridges.  AVhen  he  decided  to  begin 
to  use  the  chair  we  found,  to  our  disappointment,  that  the  coolies — 
though  with  the  best  will  in  the  world — were  unable  to  carry  him. 
They  were  not  used  to  working  in  concert  nor  keeping  step  together, 
and  they  were  not  strong  in  the  arms,  so  that  their  exertion  was  out  of 
all  proportion  to  the  burden,  and  they  had  to  stop  for  rest  every  few 
steps.  Brocherel,  who  was  findiiig  his  strength  greater  than  he  had 
thought,  finally  decided  that  he  could  make  most  of  the  way  on  foot 
by  proceeding  slowly.     So  we  continued,  at  the  pace  of  a  funeral  cortege. 

We  followed  the  median  moraine  of  the  glacier,  which  begins  at  the 
mouth  of  the  De  FiHppi,  and  is  shortly  increased  by  the  confluence 
of  the  Savoia.  During  the  past  month  the  level  of  the  glacier  had 
fallen  considerably,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  moraines  had  increased 
in  evenness  and  regularity.  The  long  central  spine,  formed  by  the 
median  moraine,  now  marked  by  numerous  glacial  lakes,  stood  several 
feet  above  the  rest  of  the  glacier,  which  was  aU  corrugated  with 
longitudinal  ridges  and  furrows,  among  which  ran  smaller  moraines 
and  noisy  surface  torrents  of  water.  Some  of  the  ridges  of  ice  were  in 
the  form  of  long  parallel  rows  of  notched  and  irregular  blocks  with 
cuttings  between  them.  Here  and  there  the  ice  terminated  on  the 
edge  of  the  moraine  in  rows  of  rounded  lumps,  which  looked  Hke  surf 
suddenly  arrested  and  fi-ozen  upon  a  beach.  We  observed  several  times 
a  phenomenon  never  felt  to  anything  like  the  same  degree  on  other 
glaciers — the  frequent  sharp  and  violent  concussion  due  to  fissures 
opening  in  the  mass,  accompanied  by  distinctly  perceptible  quaking 
of  the  ice  beneath  our  feet,  which  sometimes  amounts  to  an  actual 
undulating  movement.  The  phenomenon  is  certainly  not  caused  by 
earthquake  shock. 


286 


Chapter  XVi. 


The  moraine  grows  broader  and  flatter  as  we  go  down,  till  it  looks 
like  a  wide  road  in  the  middle  of  the  valley.  In  its  centre  the  stones 
are  small  and  broken.  The  larger  ones  are  collected  at  the  edges, 
forming  rows  of  glacier  tables.  The  walking  was  so  easy  that  we  made 
Brocherel  momit  his  chair  again,  and  he  was  carried  for  longer  distances 
than  at  first,  thanks  to  the  help  of  Bareux's  broad  shoulders. 


K-   FROM    THE   UODWIM   AUSTEN,    NEAR   COSCORDIA. 


All  the  moraines  of  the  Godwin  Austen  run  in  straight  lines  toward 
the  Concordia  basm,  imtil  they  meet  the  glacier  that  comes  down  from 
the  western  flank  of  Broad  Peak.  There  they  make  a  wide  symmetrical 
curve  to  come  into  line  with  the  moraines  flowing  from  the  upper 
Baltoro,  and  they  all  proceed  westward  in  parallel  rows  in  the  narrow 
stretch  between  Mitre  Peak  and  Marble  Point,  which  stand  sentinels 
to  the  entrance  to  the  lower  valley.  We  found  the  tents  set  up  where 
the  curve  of  the  moraine  begins,  not  far  from  the  Concordia,  near  the 
largest  boulder  we  had  seen  on  the  glaciers  of  the  Karakoram.  Enrico 
and  Emilio  Brocherel  came  a  half-hour's  distance  from  camp  to  meet 
us,  and  with  their  help  we  w^ere  able  to  cover  the  rest  of  the  distance 


Kroin   K  "  to  Bride  Peak. 


287 


at  a  good  pace  and  to  spaie  the  invalid  further  fatigue,  so  that  he 
reached  camp  in  good  condition.  The  snow  had  almost  stopped,  and 
a  fresh  wind  was  blowing,  as  usual,  from  the  south-west. 

The  once  more  united  forces  now  exchanged  their  experiences  of  the 
past  few  days.  Sella  had  profited  by  the  two  exceptional  fine  days  to 
make    highly    successful    photographic    excursions.     On    the    •26th    he 


WSr 

4-' 

K'   at   SrXSET,    SEEX    FROM    THE    LOWER    GOD\VIX    AVSTEN". 

climbed  the  rocky  corner  between  the  Baltoro  and  the  Godwin  Austen, 
reaching  a  shoulder  17,239  feet  high  on  the  black  and  broken  scliists 
fi'om  which  rises  the  marble  peak.  Thence  he  took  panorama  C.  The 
next  day  he  crossed  the  glacier  to  the  foot  of  the  great  western  ridge 
of  the  Gasherbrums,  and  made  a  difficult  way  up  the  rocks  and  icy 
gullies  to  a  ledge  17,917  feet  high,  just  about  oj^posite  to  his  position 
of  the  day  before.  Here  he  took  panorama  D.  These  two  panoramas 
are  all  that  could  be  desired  in  the  way  of  showing  the  whole 
amphitheatre  and  its  surrounding  mountain  chains.  Sella  also  collected 
and  photographed  some  Alpine  plants  growing  in  sheltered  places  on  the 
heights  up  to  nearly  18,000  feet.' 

'  These  plants  are  classified  and  illustrated  in  the  Botanical  Lidex  of  Prof.  Pirotta  and 
Dr.  Cortesi.    In  the  Nanda  Devi  group  in  Gahrwal  Longstaff  found  plants  only  up  to  16,500  feet. 


288  Cliai)tc'r  XVI. 

The  weather  steadily  improved  :  the  heavy  clouds  were  dispersed, 
and  the  day  closed  with  another  scene  of  unforgettable  splendour.  It 
was,  in  fact,  the  extraordinary  rapidity  and  variety  of  the  atmospheric 
changes  in  this  region  which  contributed  most  largely  to  the  aesthetic 
pleasure  of  a  sojourn  there.  The  terminal  peak  of  K-  stood  out  above 
a  wreath  of  cloud  that  was  faintly  rosy  in  the  twilight.  The  moon, 
almost  at  full,  burst  through  the  vapours  to  the  south-east  and  seemed 
to  sweep  them  before  it.  The  group  of  gradually  descending  summits 
between  Bride  Peak  and  the  Vigne  glacier  were  all  floating  in  a  bed 
of  down.  Twilight  and  moonlight  combined  in  strange  and  beautiful 
effects  of  light  and  shade  upon  the  walls  and  heights.  Finally,  the 
calm  brilliance  of  the  moon  replaced  the  dayhght,  all  the  surrounding 
snows  taking  reflections  from  the  clear  air,  while  the  walls  that  lay  in 
shadow  show^ed  dark  and  mysterious  by  contrast  with  their  radiance. 

On  July  1st  the  Duke,  Sella,  the  guides  and  all  the  coolies  left  camp 
to  ascend  the  upper  Baltoro.  Negrotto  and  I  stayed  behind  with 
Lorenzo  Petigax  and  Alessio  Brocherel,  until  the  coolies  should  return. 
We  remained  for  five  days,  which  we  spent  in  concluding  the 
topographical  work  with  two  last  panoramas  and  in  making  two  short 
excursions  on  the  glacier.  Brocherel  meanwhile  went  on  improving 
and  gaining  in  strength. 

The  high  bastion  of  moraine  upon  which  we  were  now  encamped, 
near  the  entrance  to  the  Concordia,  was  a  fine  post  of  observation. 
Just  opposite  us  to  the  west  was  the  Marble  Peak,  standing  upon  its 
black  foundation,  which  ls  likewise  veined  with  white  marble.  It 
looked  rather  like  a  huge  magnolia  bud  about  to  burst.  It  is  confronted 
on  the  east  by  the  large  glaciers  of  the  ridge  joining  Broad  Peak  and  the 
Gasherbrums — they  unite  behind  a  long  and  narrow  screen  of  rock 
which  flanks  the  Godwin  Austen  on  the  left,  and  flow  together  into 
the  Concordia.  On  the  south  the  vision  traverses  the  wide  Concordia 
basin,  a  series  of  high  ridges  and  deep  furrows,  bare  ice  and  moraine 
alternating,  and  reaches  up  within  the  southern  Baltoro  and  the  valley 
of  the  Vigne,  which  appear  to  converge  high  up  at  the  base  of  Bride 
Peak.  K-  at  this  distance  has  all  its  old  impressiveness.  We  were 
too  near  Broad  Peak  to  get  a  good  view  of  it — it  looks  from  where  we 
are  a  huge  misshapen  mass.  By  descending  the  moraine  for  a  short 
distance  one  can  see  the  opening  and  the  long  vista  of  the  lower 
Baltoro,  with  the  beautiful  peak  of  Paiju  rising  at  the  end. 


K^  from  the  Concordia  Ainphitheatre 


3itB*jrltiHqmA  BibioonnJ  arij  moit  ,*>! 


From  K  '  to  Bride  Peak.  289 

All  these  giant  mountains  gain  in  size  and  impressiveness  as  one 
gets  farther  away  from  them ;  for  the  valleys,  wide  as  they  seem,  are 
really  disproportionately  narrow  to  the  heights  above  them,  so  that 
one  sees  all  the  outlines  dwarfed  and  distorted  by  foreshortening. 
Contrasting  with  the  snow  are  rocks  of  bold  design  in  a  great  variety 
of  colours — black  schists,  granites,  gneiss  in  all  shades  of  grey,  which 
when  the  sun  strikes  them  look  biown  and  give  out  red,  blue  and  yellow 
gleams ;  while  the  hmestones,  white  or  creamy,  blood-coloured  or 
greenish,  run  a  whole  gamut  of  varying  shades.  Sometimes  we  arrive 
at  a  consciousness,  even  if  a  dim  one,  of  the  wonderful  harmony  of 
form,  the  perfect  balance  and  proportion  of  this  seeming  chaos  ;  but 
oftener  we  give  up  all  analysis  of  our  sensations,  and  rest  in  a  vague 
and  silent  contemplation. 

On  this  side  and  on  that  of  the  median  moraine,  the  glacier  has  a 
relatively  smooth  strip,  and  then  becomes  more  and  more  disturbed 
and  upheaved  as  one  approaches  the  marginal  moraines.  The  screen 
of  rocks  at  the  foot  of  Broad  Peak  is  not  easy  to  reach.  The  course 
of  the  waters  has  curved  great  furrows  and  ditches  between  the 
moraines  and  ice  ridges.  We  have  to  make  long  detours  in  order  to 
go  around  these,  as  well  as  to  avoid  the  steeper  slopes.  Between  the 
marginal  moraine  and  the  strip  of  ice  nearest  it  lay  a  charming  little 
arctic  landscape  in  miniature,  composed  of  the  bluest  of  small  lakes 
all  running  in  between  the  thousand  narrow  inlets  of  the  undermined 
and  jagged  banks.  Blocks  of  ice  reduced  by  melting  to  the  most 
fantastic  shapes  mirrored  themselves  in  these  little  lakes.  Everywhere 
one  heard  the  sound  of  dripping,  bubbling  and  rushing  waters  coming 
down  all  the  surrounding  slopes,  accompanied  by  the  dull  and  heavy 
undertone  from  the  undergroimd  torrents  and  the  splashes  made  by 
ice  breaking  off  and  faUing  into  the  water.  We  were  only  some  600  or 
700  feet  below  the  base  camp  ;  but  this  shght  difference  gave  us  a 
distinct  sense  of  well-being,  to  which  probably  the  improvement  in  the 
weather  contributed.  It  was  quite  mild  and  calm,  and  one  could  stay 
for  hours  in  the  sun  on  the  warm  stones  of  the  moraine.  It  was  most 
welcome  refreshment  for  eyes  fatigued  by  weeks  of  reverberation  from 
the  snows.  During  the  midday  hours  currents  of  warm  air  vibrated 
above  the  moraine,  as  on  a  desert.  None  of  us  ever  suffered  from  too 
great  intensity  of  the  sun — certainly  at  Windy  Gap  it  was  far  preferable 
to    the    shade.     Later    I    will    make    some    comparison    between    our 

(9220  T 


2!l(i 


Chapter   W'l. 


observations   of    solar    radiation    and    those    brought    back    by    other 
expeditions. 

There  were  not  enough  tents  to  shelter  all  the  extra  coolies  sent 
up  from  Rdokass,  so  they  had  improvised  a  sort  of  open-air  camp  for 
themselves,  building  a  low  circular  wall  enclosing  a  flat  space  a  few 
yards  in  diameter.  This  they  paved  by  ingeniously  fitting  slabs  of 
stone  together.     A  little  beyond  they  had  constructed  a  sort  of  terrace, 


BRIDK    TEAK,   FROM   THE   GODAyiX   AUSTE}.",   NEAR   COXCOKDIA. 


and  at  8  or  10  yards'  distance  from  this  set  up  a  stone  pyramid  to  mark 
the  west  and  the  direction  of  Mecca.  To  this  platform  they  would  go 
one  by  one  to  say  their  prayers  and  make  their  prostrations.  It  was 
the  first  time  we  had  seen  any  of  them  perform  any  act  of  devotion  : 
they  seem,  in  general,  rather  lukewarm  Mohammedans.  The  Kashmiri, 
as  I  have  said  before,  are  Sunnites,  and  they  accuse  the  Shiite  Baltis 
of  practising  all  sorts  of  bloody  rites,  including  human  sacrifice ;  and  the 
Baltis  retort  the  charge  upon  their  accusers.  It  is  probably  the  result 
of  sectarian  prejudice,  without  foundation  on  either  side. 


From  K-  to  IJridc-   Peak.  201 

We  started  up  the  Baltoro  ourselves  on  July  6tli,  the  coolies  carrying 
our  tent,  beds  and  a  few  other  things.  We  took  to  the  foot  of  Bride 
Peak  only  so  much  equipment  as  was  needful  for  fifteen  days,  the  rest 
was  left  at  Concordia  in  charge  of  Alessio  Brocherel.  He  was  now 
quite  convalescent,  but  not  sufficiently  strong  for  the  strain  of  the  high 
mountain  work.  Later  on  a  party  of  coolies  carried  all  the  stores  left 
with  him  back  to  Rdokass  directly  from  Concordia,  and  Brocherel  went 
with  them. 

The  snow  had  been  falhng  since  the  day  before,  and  the  moraines 
were  covered  with  a  heavy  layer.  It  showed  no  sign  of  abating  on  the 
morning  of  our  start,  and  the  coohes  told  us  tliev  could  not  walk  in 
the  soft  snow  in  their  pabboos,  which  they  were  now  wearing  to  save 
their  boots  from  the  moraine.  We  waited  a  few  hours  hoping  a  pause 
would  come,  and  thus  did  not  set  out  until  toward  noon.  We  followed 
the  moraine  for  a  short  distance  to  the  point  where  it  takes  a  more 
pronounced  westward  curve ;  then  we  left  it  for  an  irregular  tract 
belonging  to  the  glaciers  flowing  into  Concordia  from  the  west.  There 
were  alternate  slopes  of  moraine  and  bare  ice,  separated  b}-  furrows 
and  ditches  sometimes  as  much  as  100  feet  deep,  where  there  were  Uttle 
azure  lakes,  or  else  rushing  streams  that  wound  a  tortuous  course  between 
their  steep  banks  of  ice,  the  latter  all  ragged  and  undermined  and  sharp 
at  the  edge.  We  had  to  keep  going  back  and  forth,  and  climbing  up 
and  down  steep  slopes,  so  that  it  was  impossible  to  take  account  of  the 
ridges  and  moraines  which  had  looked  from  a  distance  so  very  regidar 
in  their  arrangement.  We  crossed  the  western  glacier  of  the 
Gasherbrums  without  seeing  any  of  the  high  imposing  wall  of  the 
mountain  itself,  wrapped  in  thick  mist,  and  reached  a  furious  torrent 
running  deep  between  steep  ice  walls.  Along  this  Ave  had  to  go  for 
some  distance  before  we  found  a  place  where  a  jutting  piece  of  ice 
permitted  us  to  cross  over.  Beyond  were  the  moraines  of  the  upper 
Baltoro  itself,  which  we  crossed  at  the  point  where  they  curve  westward 
parallel  to  those  of  the  Godwin  Austen.  The  first  was  the  large  right- 
hand  moraine,  a  beautiful  composition  of  limestones,  coloured  marbles 
and  conglomerates  in  the  greatest  variety,  forming  a  gaily  coloured 
mosaic  by  means  of  a  sort  of  reddish  silicacious  substance  which 
acted  as  cement.  Next  came  a  file  of  seracs  running  lengthwise 
between  the  right-hand  moraine  and  the  various  stripes  of  the 
median    one ;  these    were    composed    first    of    a    streak   of    thin   black 

(9221)  T  -2 


292 


Chapter  XVI. 


slaty  schists,  then   more  coloured  limestones  mixed  with  schists  and 
quartzes.  * 

I  have  already  explained  how  we  were  able  from  the  appearance 
of  the  moraines  to  analyze  the  structure  of  the  chains  whence  they 
came.  Now  our  conclusions  were  strengthened  by  the  appearance  of 
the  rocks  themselves,  which  showed  a  clear  contrast  between  the  light- 
coloiued  sedimentary  and  calcareous  formations,   and  the   black  and 


SURFACE   TOBBKXT   OF   THE   UPPER   BALTORO.      GOLDEN   THROSE   AXD   CHOGOLISA    SADDLE 

IN   THE   BACKGROUND. 


grey  schists  and  granites.  This  alternation  of  material  in  the  upper 
Baltoro  is  clearly  displayed  in  Sella's  panorama  M,  taken  from  the 
crest  between  the  Vigne  and  the  upper  Baltoro.  The  centre  shows 
the  black  stripe  formed  by  the  right-hand  moraine  of  the  Vigne  and 
the  left-hand  of  the  Baltoro.  It  is  all  composed  of  granites  and  quartzes 
from  the  Bride  Peak  chain.  Next,  on  the  right,  is  a  second  band 
(coming  from  the  right-hand  lower  corner  of  the  panorama).  Its 
source  is  the  confluence  of  the  eastern  glaciers  of  Bride  Peak.  It  has 
the  same  colour  as  the  j&rst,  and  hke  it  is  composed  of  crystalline  rocks. 
Still  farther  toward   the   right   comes   a   pale   grey   stripe   formed   of 

'  Specimens  of  rocks  collected  on  the  various  moraines  are  given  in  two  coloured  plates 
included  in  the  geological  appendix  of  the  results  of  the  expedition ;  they  present  an  idea  of  the 
great  richness  and  variety  of  colouring. 


The   Baltoro  at  the  confluence  of  tho   Vigne 


anaiV  sril  ]o  ei-jn^nflnii .  ■)rlt  in  uioJlsa   ariT 


From  K  -  to  liride  Peak. 


293 


limestones  from  Golden  Throne,  a  thin  streak  of  solid  black  composed 
of  scales  of  slate  from  the  northern  spurs  of  Golden  Throne  ;  then 
another  pale  grey  band  of  hmestones  from  Gasherbrum  I  or  Hidden 
Peak  ;  and  finally,  the  right-hand  marginal  moraine,  running  at  the 
base  of  the  right  valley  wall — this  last  composed  of  light  grey 
sedimentary  rock  from  the  Gasherbrum  range. 


THE   VIGNE   GLACIER   AND    ITS   TRIBUTARIES    OF   THE    LEFT    B.VXK. 


There  was  a  Ughtening  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  west,  and  we  could 
tell  that  we  had  reached  the  level  of  the  mouth  of  the  Yigne  glacier. 
A  little  farther  on,  where  the  end  of  its  right-hand  spur  abuts  on  the 
valley,  we  made  oui'  camji,  yielding  to  the  importunities  of  the  coolies, 
who  were  tired  and  discouraged  with  the  bad  weather.  A  little 
afterwards  we  were  joined  by  five  coohes  from  Rdokass,  who  brought 
us  post  and  provisions,  and  stayed  the  night  with  us. 

July  7th  was  cloudy,  foggy  and  snowy,  hke  the  preceding  day.  We 
went  on  to  the  camp  at  the  foot  of  Golden  Throne,  seeing  nothing  all 
the  way  except  the  stones  we  walked  on  where  these  were  not  covered 
with  snow.  The  glacier  was  heaved  up  in  waves  right  and  left  of  us, 
as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  lateral  spiu's   of  the  valley.     For  this  stretch 

(9221)  T  3 


294 


ChapUT  XVI. 


the  reader  should  look  at  panoramas  N  and  K.  As  we  neared  the  foot 
of  Golden  Throne  the  median  moraine  spread  out  like  a  fan,  and  the 
central  stripes  rayed  out  till  they  reached  the  base  of  the  rocks,  where 
a  little  series  of  marginal  lakes  was  formed.  A  curious  fact  which  we 
were  unable  to  explain  was  that  the  laminated  formations,  like  slates, 
which  had  been  at  first  lying  flat,  were  here  disposed  vertically  and 
formed  wide  stretchfes  made  of  these  thin  and  narrow  edges,  tiresome 
to  walk  over.  It  looked  as  though  the  stones  were  thus  heaved  up  by 
pressure  due  to  the  meeting  of  the  Baltoro  with  the  eastern  glaciers  of 
Bride  Peak. 


SCENE    AT   SVXSET,    LOOKIXt!    XOKTH   FROM    TllK    L  ITKi;    BALTOIU).       K"   OX   THE    KIGHT, 
MUSTAOH   TOWER   OX    THE    LEFT. 


We  cut  obliquely  across  the  top  of  the  moraine  toward  the  west, 
and  reached  its  left-hand  margin  at  no  great  distance  from  the  angle 
of  rock  which  bounds  on  this  side  the  great  terminal  fall  of  the  Chogohsa 
glacier.  Here  the  Duke  had  set  up  Camp  XI,  base  camj)  for  the  new 
campaign,  10,637  feet  high.  There  w'as  a  little  lake  between  the  camp 
and  the  rocks.  It  was  near  here  that  Conway  had  camped  when  he 
attacked  Golden  Throne  (Footstool  Camp). 

As  we  had  anticipated,  the  tents  were  empty ;  but  about  an  hour 
later  we  were  surprised  to  see  Sella,  Savoie,  Botta  and  the  coolies 
coming  down  the  glacier  behind  the  camp.  Sella  told  us  of  the  Duke's 
new  plans,  of  the  great  difficulty  they  had  encomitered  climbing  up  the 
scracs   toward   ChogolLsa   Saddle,   of  the  wretched   weather,   etc.     But 


From  K ""  to  Bride  Peak. 


•29/i 


all  this  I  will  recount  in  its  proper  place.  The  Duke  wanted  provisions, 
and  we  sent  the  coolies  back  with  them  as  soon  as  possible,  in  charge 
of  Savoie  and  Lorenzo  Petigax. 

Xegrotto  and  I  were  in  this  camp  for  thirteen  days,  Sella  staving 
with  us  till  July  11th,  when  he  took  advantage  of  a  party  of  coohes 
going  down  to  Rdokass  to  leave  us  and  make  a  temporary  shelter  for 
himself  with  a  tarpaulin,  near  the  meeting  of  the  Vigne  and  the  Baltoro, 
expecting  to  make  this  a  base  for  photographic  expeditioas. 


THE   XORTEERX   WALL   OF   COLDES   THRONE.    FROM   THE   MEDIAN    MclRMVK    UK    THE 

UPPER  BALTORO. 


The  days  were  long  and  lonely.  We  had  not  even  the  crows  to 
distract  us,  as  they  had  apparently  deserted  the  high  regions  early  in 
July.  Our  only  diversion  was  that  of  going  on  short  excursions  about 
the  neighbourhood  with  the  purpose  of  making  topographical  stations 
with  the  tacheometer.  But  many  more  davs  were  spent  in  idle 
contemplation  of  the  bad  weather,  in  passive  waiting  for  news  from 
the  Duke,  who  was  snowed  up  somewhere  on  the  high  glaciei-s  of 
t'hogolisa  Saddle,  surrounded  by  thick  clouds,  confronting  with  what 
patience  he  might  the  relentless  hostihty  of  the  sky.     More  than  once 

(9221)  T  4 


29fi  Chapter  WI. 

during  the  long  period  of  inaction  we  were  assailed  by  feelings  of  anxiety 
for  the  safety  of  the  exploring  party.  Only  once,  on  the  13th,  did  we 
have  news  of  them.  A  party  of  cooUes  with  three  of  the  guides  came 
down  for  supplies  and  brought  us  a  letter  from  the  Duke,  telling  us  of 
the  first  attempts  at  an  ascent,  frustrated  by  the  bad  weather,  saying 
that  he  was  still  resolved  to  continue  in  his  undertaking. 

Two  days  after  we  had  made  camp  the  sun  for  the  first  time  got 
the  better  about  midday  of  tlio  clouds  and  fog,  and  showed  us  the  scene 
by  which  we  were  surrounded,  to  which  we  had  come  in  the  dark,  as  it 
were,  without  getting  an  idea  of  the  composition  of  the  picture. 
Panorama  0  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  it.  The  camp  lay  at  the  foot 
of  a  very  steep  rocky  incline  3,000  or  more  feet  high,  terminating  the 
northern  spur  of  Golden  Throne.  The  rock  strata  are  clearly  marked, 
and  show  varioas  colours — yellow,  white,  grey,  violet  and  green — being 
the  source  of  the  polychrome  hmestones  of  the  median  moraine  of  the 
Baltoro.  The  clifl:  is  furrowed  with  gullies  large  and  small,  and  high 
up  on  it  hangs  the  broken  end  of  a  glacier  coming  down  from  the  lofty 
peaks  we  cannot  see.  Avalanches  fell  continually  from  the  wall,  fed 
from  the  uninterrupted  heavy  snows,  during  the  whole  time  of  our 
stay  here.  They  were  not  so  stupendous  as  those  from  Broad  Peak, 
but  much  more  frequent.  The  first  ray  of  sunshine  was  enough  to 
dislodge  the  snow,  and  it  fell  in  cataracts,  in  cascades,  in  streams,  in 
rivulets,  swift  and  gleaming  white,  down  all  the  ravines  and  crannies 
of  the  rocks,  and  rose  up  in  iridescent  showers  above  every  obstacle 
that  impeded  its  course.  The  heavy  rumble  of  the  falhng  mass  was 
punctuated  with  sharp  knocks  and  cracklings  from  the  rolling  stones, 
or  drowned  altogether  by  the  deafening  tumult  made  by  a  downfall 
of  seracs,  or  a  rock  breaking  off  with  a  tremendous  crash  and  raising 
up  clouds  of  dust  in  its  course.  In  the  warm  part  of  the  day  it  seemed 
as  though  the  whole  mountain  were  actually  falling  apart,  so  huge  were 
the  masses  of  ice,  rock  and  snow  that  hurled  themselves  down  from  it. 

In  front  of  us  we  had  a  glacier  lake  similar  to  the  Concordia  one, 
though  smaller.  The  swelling  stream  of  the  Baltoro  bends  eastward, 
becoming  broader  and  broader,  and  rising  at  a  moderate  grade  to  the 
foot  of  Hidden  Peak,  the  highest  of  the  Gasherbrum  group  (26,470  feet), 
which  up  to  now  none  of  us  had  seen  except  Sella  and  the  Duke.  The 
former  got  a  glimpse  of  it  when  he  crossed  the  eastern  chain  of  the 
upper  Godwin  Austen,  and    the  latter  when  he  was  on  the  ridge  of 


I^'ioin    K  -   to    I)ii(lc'   Peak. 


297 


Staircase  Peak.  It  was  Conway  who  gave  the  name  Hidden  Peak  to 
this  remote  and  splendid  height.  It  resembles  in  shape,  on  a  larger 
scale,  Gasherbrum  IV  at  the  head  of  the  Concordia  basin.  Its  western 
side  is  covered  with  glaciers  which  unite  and  flow  into  the  Baltoro. 
The  Baltoro  itself  finally  bends  southward  and  disappears  from  sight 
between  Hidden  Peak  and  a  snowy  pyramid  of  Golden  Throne. 


HIDDKN   PEAK. 


Facing  Hidden  Peak  on  the  west  is  the  eastern  wall  of  Bride  Peak, 
quite  clothed  in  glaciers  falling  from  a  height  of  some  5,000  feet,  great 
foaming  white  cataracts  like  frozen  Niagaras.  From  our  station  we 
could  only  see  the  western  peak,  which  is  the  highest,  and  shaped  like 
a  sharp  narrow  tooth.  Two  long  crests  run  fi'om  it  to  northward  and 
eastward,  embracing  in  the  sweep  of  their  wings  the  most  formidable 
glacial  basin  which  a  single  mountain  could  possibly  show.  The 
northern  ridge,  which  is  partly  rocky,  is  prolonged  in  a  massive  spur, 
behind  which  a  glacier  emerging  from  the  northern  wall  of  the  mountain 
empties  into  the  Baltoro  with  a  high  and  steep  cascade.  It  is  this 
northern  wall  of  the  mountain  which  we  saw  fi'om  our  base  camp  at 


298 


Chapter  XVI. 


K^.  The  eastern  crest  is  mantled  with  ice  and  edged  with  a  wide 
cornice.  From  2,000  to  2,200  feet  below  the  peak  this  crest  shapes 
itself  into  a  large  shoulder  like  a  great  dome  of  ice,  beyond  which  it 
slopes  down  at  a  more  gentle  incline  to  Chogolisa  Saddle.  A  rib  of  ice 
runs  out  at  right  angles  from  its  foot,  and  comes  down  toward  the 
Baltoro,  ending  in  a  rocky  promontory.     Between  this  and  the  buttress 


EASTERN   WALL  OF    BRIDE   PEAK. 


of  Golden  Throne,  at  whose  base  we  hnd  set  up  our  camp,  a  glacier  from 
the  snows  of  Kondus  and  Chogohsa  tumbles  down  in  a  perfect  torrent 
of  seracs. 

Opposite  our  camp  the  Baltoro  flows  down  the  valley  northward, 
occupying  the  centre  of  the  view.  Turning  one's  eyes  in  that  direction 
one  beholds  the  strangest  conceivable  apparition  of  a  mountain, 
so  singular  in  its  form  that  it  is  not  to  be  compared  to  any  other 
known  peak.  It  stands  in  the  background  of  the  scene,  to  the  right 
of  the  black  tooth  of  Mitre  Peak,  and  rears  its  mighty  tower  against 


Mustagh  Tower 


•3woT  rf}j|6Jeiul/l 


From   K  '  to   l)ri(k'  IVak. 


291) 


the  sky,  its  sides  smootli  like  surfaces  formed  by  cleavage,  its  angles 
clean  and  sharp  like  those  of  an  obelisk.  This  mountain,  of  course, 
is  the  Mustagh  Tower.  It  is  about  24,000  feet  high,  and  stands  isolated 
from  other  peaks  on  a  somewhat  narrow  base  marked  by  sharp  ridges. 
It  appears,  and  perhaps  is,  a  true  monolith,  a  rocky  mass  of  a  single 
formation,  without  traces  of  breaks  or  divisional  planes — no  other,  of 
any  comparable  size,  is  known  to  exist  on  the  globe.      AVords  would  be 


5riTRE    TEAK. 


MrSTAGH   TOWER. 


MITRE   PEAK    AND    MUSTAGH   TOWER    FROM   OtTR   CAMP  AT  THE   BASE   OF   GOLDEN   THRONE. 

incapable  of  giving  a  just  idea  of  it  without  the  accompanying  picture.. 
Panorama  L,  taken  by  telephotography,^  shows  it,  as  well  as  the 
background  of  the  Baltoro  glacier  formed  by  the  chain  which  runs  from 
Mustagh  Tower  to  K-,  with  its  great  snowy  peaks,  among  which 
penetrates  the  Savoia  glacier.  Crystal  Peak,  Marble  Point  and  all 
the  other  heights  along  the  side  of  the  glacier,  arc  mere  secondary  spurs 
of  this  great  chain,  which  is  the  actual  watershed  of  the  region.  The 
left  side  of  the  upper  Baltoro  is  formed  of  lesser  mountains  of  brownish 
red  rock,  like  Bride  Peak.     Of  this  side  we  get  a  foreshortened  view  as 

'  Owing  to  a  mistake,  the  site  from  which  panorama  L  was  taken  is  marked  on  the  sketch 
of  the  triangulation  and  Sclla\s  pliotographic  stations  as  being  on  the  right  side  of  the  Baltoro, 
at  the  foot  of  the  soutliern  buttress  of  the  tiaslierbrums.     Instead  of  this,  it  was  taken  from 
Camp  XI,  like  panorama  O.     Sella  did  take  a  panorama  from  the  point  indicated,  but  it  is  not . 
reproduced  in  this  book. 


300 


Chapter  XVI. 


far  as  Mitre  Peak,  which  looks  two-pronged  from  our  point  of  view, 
and  very  like,  indeed,  to  the  bishop's  cap,  from  which  it  is  named. 
The  right  side  of  the  valley  is  formed  by  the  large  mountain  group  which 
occupies  the  angle  between  the  three  Gasherbrums  (invisible  from  the 
camp)  and  Hidden  Peak.  It  has  two  peaks  over  23,000  feet  high.  The 
formation  is  hght-coloured  rock,  with  low  outlying  spurs  of  dark  brown. 
It  is  this  wall  which  now  cuts  off  K-  from  our  view. 


GROlr   OF   MOUNTAINS   BETWEEN   0A3HERBRUM    AND    HIDDEN   PEAK. 


July  10th  was  a  beautiful  day,  the  only  really  perfect  one  during 
the  whole  of  our  stay  here.  On  the  next  the  fine  weather  broke  again. 
A  slender  pennant  of  cloud  appeared  over  Mustagh  Tower.  It  presently 
covered  the  Tower,  and  wrapped  it  round  with  one  of  its  ends, 
broadening  and  spreading  and  enveloping  the  top  of  the  mountain  as 
in  a  mesh,  which  soon  thickened  into  a  huge  soHd  cap.  Heavy  clouds 
appeared  on  the  low  saddles  at  the  sides  of  the  Tower,  and  all  the  ridges 
flew  thin  streamers  of  translucent  cloud  that  appeared  and  disappeared 
again.  Cirrus  clouds  dappled  the  sky,  growing  and  accumulating  and 
hanging  motionless  over  the  valley,  till  at  length  they  mingled  to  form 


From  K  -  to  Bride  Peak. 


301 


a  dense  opaque  grey  covering,  from  which  the  snow  began  presently 
to  descend  again,  quietly  and  steadily. 

The  weather  was  quite  different  from  that  we  had  experienced  in 
June.  The  air  was  quieter,  the  temperature  higher;  but  the 
precipitation  was  almost  uninterrupted.  However,  it  did  not  quite 
keep  pace  with  the  melting  process,  which  went  on  at  a  considerable 


\ 


_*t 


CAMP  XI,   AFTER  A   SSOWFALI-. 

rate,  even  in  cloudy  weather.  We  heard  a  thousand  voices  from  the 
glacier — continuous  dripping,  murmur  of  Httle  streams,  the  deadened 
noise  of  distant  torrents,  the  rattle  of  detritus  down  icy  slopes,  the  sharp 
cracks  of  opening  fissures.  Now  and  then  these  lesser  sounds  would 
be  drowned  by  the  roar  of  an  avalanche.  In  a  few  days  the  surface 
of  the  glacier  lowered  so  much  that  the  tents  stood  on  Httle  ledges 
a  foot  or  more  high ;  and  melting  must  have  gone  on  also  at  their  level, 
though  to  a  smaller  degree.^      Little  waterfalls  were  flowing  all  over 

'  On  their  last  campaign  (1908)  the  Workmans  measured  the  melting  of  the  snows  on  the 
Hispar  glacier — or  rather  on  a  snow-field  of  one  of  its  tributaries,  the  Kanisabar  glacier,  16,650  feet 
high.  In  ten  days  of  cloudy  weather,  during  which  some  snow  fell,  they  registered  a  lowering  of 
27  -5  inches — that  is,  2  -7  inches  per  day.     In  fine  weather  the  rate  was  3  -7  inches  per  day. 


30-.'  Chapter   W'l. 

the  rocks  behind  the  camp,  disappearing  at  the  tops  of  the  great  cones 
of  snow  formed  at  the  bottom  of  every  couloir.  By  July  17th  the  snow 
turned  into  an  unpleasant  drizzle,  wliicli  the  next  day  became  heavy 
rain — this  was  at  an  altitude  of  16,637  feet. 

The  data  given  by  various  tiavellers  as  to  the  snow  hue  in  tlie 
Karakoram  region  are  all  very  uncertain  and  contradictory.  On  only 
one  point  do  they  seem  to  be  in  accord — namely,  that  in  the  Himalaya 
and  adjacent  mountain  systems  the  snow  line  is  lower  on  the  southern 
than  on  the  northern  slopes,  due  to  the  greater  precipitation  on  the 
former,  which  I  have  already  mentioned.  But  there  are  no  precise 
statistics,^  and  only  a  long  stay  and  repeated  obsei"vations  at  various 
seasons  could  decide  the  point.  It  seems  likely  that  the  high  degree 
of  precipitation,  due  to  the  summer  monsoons,  would  make  it  hard  to 
establish  an  invariable  figure  for  the  height  at  which  the  precipitation 
woidd  just  balance  the  melting.  Probably  such  a  line  varies  from  year 
to  year. 

To  the  heavy  vapours  of  July  we  owed  some  of  the  finest  sunsets 
in  our  experience.  For  the  first  time  we  saw  the  skies  set  on  fire  witii 
the  glow,  the  brilliant  contrasts  of  gold,  azure  and  violet  clouds,  and 
the  snows  illuminated  by  the  reflected  light.  The  sun  would  bmy  itself 
in  the  storm-clouds  which  never  left  the  western  horizon.  Mustagli 
Tower  would  be  immersed  in  rosy  vapours  until  the  last  ray  faded,  when 
it  emerged  a  black  and  austere  height  guarding  the  whole  strange  region 
like  a  sentinel. 

It  only  remains  foi-  me  to  recount  the  measure  of  success  which 
attended  the  enterprise  of  the  Duke  on  Bride  Peak,  and  the  close  of 
our  campaign. 

'  Sir  J.  D.  Hooker,  R.  Strachcy,  F.  Drew,  S.  G.  Burrard  and  H.  H.  Hayden,  T.  G.  Longstaff 
and  others,  in  the  works  ah-eady  cited,  all  state  that  the  snow  line  gradually  rises  as  one  goes  from 
the  southern  toward  tlie  northern  chains.  .Sir  J.  D.  Hooker  and  Col.  Tanner  are  of  opinion  that 
it  is  not  possible  to  fix.  even  approximately,  the  limit  of  eternal  snows  in  the  Himalaya.  In  the 
western  Karakoram  Drew  and  Burrard  put  it  at  18,000  feet  ;  Guillarmod  at  18,700  to  19,000  feet — 
but  we  have  seen  that  the  estimated  heights  of  the  latter  are  always  in  excess  of  the  actual  figure. 
According  to  the  \\'orkmans,  the  line  on  the  Chogo  Lungma  and  the  Hispar  would  be  lower  than 
in  the  Baltoro  basin — from  13,100  to  17,000  feet.  However,  they  observed  great  variatit)n  from 
one  summer  to  another  in  the  same  places. 


iV-~-' 


From  Camp  XII.     Evening  on  the  Baltoro 


oioJlfiS  arij   no  gniriov3     .IIZ  qrni;3  moiT 


CHAPTER  xvrr. 


BRIDE    PEAK. 


riiiii  of  the  Ascent.  —  The  Glacier  Fall  below  Chogolisa  Saddle.  —  Camping  among  Seracs.  — 
Difficult  Ice  and  Bad  Weather. — Excursions.  —  Sella  returns  to  the  Base  Camp.  —  The 
Camp  placed  above  the  Cascade  of  S6racs.  —  Chogolisa  Saddle.  —  First  Attempt  upon  the 
Peak. — Driven  back  by  the  Storm  at  23,458  feet.  —  Snowed  in  at  Chogolisa.  —  (ioldon 
'J'hroiu'.  • —  Tojiography  of  the  Region  surrounding  tlic  Head  of  the  Baltoro.  —  The  Kondus 
and  Siachen  Claciers.  —  The  Watershed.  —  Climate.  —  Absence  of  Electric  Phenomena.  - 
Second  Attempt.  —  Camp  at  22,483  feet. —  The  Eastern  Ridge  of  ]5ride  Peak.  —  Two 
Hours  at  24,600  feet.  —  Retreat.  —  Analysis  of  Results.  —  The  Significance  of  the  Exploit. 
—  Ascensions  above  23,000  feet  in  the  History  of  Movmtaineering.  —  Deductions  and  Proc- 
nostications.  —  The  Return  to  tlu'  Base  Camp. 

On  July  1st  the  Duke  had  left 

the  camp  at  the  mouth  of  the 

Godwin  Austen  in  the  Concordia 

basin,  and  accompanied  by  Sella 

and  the  caravan  had  covered  in 

two  stages   the  distance  to  the 

foot   of   Golden   Throne.     There 

he   set   up   his   base   camp,  and 

l)eaan     operations     upon     Bride 

Peak. 

'\  He  was  obUged  to  alter  the 

l)lan      of     campaign      originallv 

formed.     The  great  snowy  slope 

of  the  northern  wall  had  looked 

from    K-    to    be    the    easy   and 

natural    way    of    ascent    to    the 

peak.     But  a  closer  examination 

gave  quite  a  different  result,  showing  it  to  be  very  difficult  of  approach. 

It  rises  above  a  high  glacial  l)asin,  se})arated  from  the  Baltoix)  by  a  long, 

steep  fall  of  seracs.     This   looked  as  though  the  coolies  would  never 

be  able  to  mount  it,  and  without  their  help  it  was  useless  to  think  of  a 

climb  of  some  9,000  feet.     The  crest  on  the  right  of  the  cascade,  wliicli 


4 


:ioi 


Chapter  XVTT. 


forms  the  lofty  eastern  edge  of  the  northern  wall,  gave  no  more 
encouraging  promise,  for  it  was  very  long,  its  cornices  were  dangerous, 
and  it  looked  full  of  unreckonable  obstacles.  The  experience  of  the 
expedition  up  to  now  had  begun  to  make  the  party  more  cautious  in 
their  plans  as  well  as  in  their  hopes.     The  Duke  and  his  guides  then 


BRIDE   PEAK,    FRO>t   THE    MEDIAN'   MORAINE   OF   THE   UPPER   BALTORO. 


considered  the  possibilities  of  the  eastern  ridge  of  the  peak,  which 
descends  to  the  wide  shoulder  I  have  mentioned,  and  thence  to  Chogolisa 
Saddle.  If  it  could  be  managed  to  put  a  camp  on  the  saddle,  by 
climbing  up  the  seracs  of  the  glacier  (Conway  had  succeeded  in  cUmbing 
part  way  up  them),  there  might  be  some  hope  of  a  comparatively  easy 
ascent  the  remainder  of  the  way. 

Accordingly,  on  the  morning  of  July  3rd,  which  proved  to  be  fine, 
the  extra  coolies  were  sent  back  to  Rdokass,  and  the  party  left  the 
Baltoro  glacier  with  the  remaining  ten,  who  carried  the  supplies  for  the 


Bride  Peak. 


:;().-> 


liigh  camps,  the  two  Whymper  and  Munimeiy  tents,  their  own 
equipment  and  a  few  days'  provisions.  No  one  of  the  party  had  any 
suspicion  of  difficulty  in  getting  on  the  saddle,  and  they  reckoned  it  to 
be  a  work  of  two  days  at  most.  But  once  more  hopes  which  seemed 
well  and  securely  founded  were  doomed  to  disappointment.  What 
ought  to  have  been  merely  a  brief  preliminary  to  the  actual  undeitaking 
proved  a  long  and  difficult  task,  demaiuling  eight  days  of  hard  work 
for  its  accomplishment. 


Jii^kiiiJ 


CAMP  XII,  AND  THE  CREST  AND  EASTERN  SHOrLDER  OF  BRIDE  PEAK. 

They  began  at  once  to  climb  up  the  broken  surface  of  the  glacier, 
which  at  the  very  start  was  covered  with  snow  and  composed  of  small 
seracs,  so  that  there  was  no  great  hindrance  to  rapid  progress.  But 
too  soon  the  snow  grew  deep  and  soft,  and  they  walked  in  it  above  their 
knees,  with  infinite  labour  at  each  step.  The  glacier  was  broken  up 
into  large  blocks,  between  which  were  wide  and  treacherous  openinfrs 
disguised  by  the  snow.  They  could  never  tell  whether  the  latter  would 
be  firm  beneath  their  tread,  or  whether  a  bottomless  gulf  would  open 
where  they  set  their  feet.  The  coolies  proceeded  with  much  effort  and 
fatigue.  Very  little  distance  was  covered  because  of  the  continual 
going  back  and  forth  to  avoid  crevasses.     The  guides  were  aiming  at 

(922 1)  I- 


30(i 


CliJiptcr    WII. 


the  top  of  the  .spur  which  closes  the  ghicier  on  the  left,  but  the  way  grew 
more  and  more  difficult.  About  noon  the  coolies  were  worn  out,  and 
a  stage  was  made,  the  tents  being  set  up  at  less  than  1,350  feet  above 
the  base  camp  on  a  strip  of  ice  cut  in  every  direction  by  crevasses  and 
covered  with  snow,  into  which  one  sank  up  to  the  waist.     The  spot 


SKRACS   OF   THE   CHOGOLISA   GLACIER. 


was  at  about  half  the  distance  up  the  first  cascade.  Above  it  the 
glacier  was  a  chaos  of  blocks  running  in  every  direction  and  piled  up 
in  confusion.  No  route  showed  itself.  Sir  Martin  Conway  had  likewise 
experienced  great  difficulty  in  finding  a  route,  on  his  attempt  in  1892, 
and  had  been  obliged  to  camp  among  the  blocks  of  ice.  The  inclination 
of  the  valley  is  not  steep  enough  to  account  for  such  a  huge  disruption 
of  the  ice.  The  Duke  had  observed  this  same  fact  when  he  cUmbed  the 
centre  of  the  Savoia  glacier.     Conway  found  that  the  brokenness  of  the 


Bride  Peak.  307 

glaciers  throughout  the  Karakoram  was  out  of  proportion  to  the  slope 
of  the  valleys,  and  he  attempted  to  explain  the  fact  with  the  hypothesis 
of  a  vertical  stratification  of  the  rocks  of  the  valley  bed,  whose  angles 
and  sharp  protuberances  would  thus  fracture  the  ice  flowing  above  it. 

Theie  was  a  rib  of  ice  near  the  camp  which  gave  a  marvellous  view 
of  all  the  upper  Baltoro  and  the  Godwin  Austen,  with  the  chain  of  the 
watershed  from  Mustagh  Tower  to  K-  for  a  background  (panorama  P). 
The  westernmost  peak  of  the  Gasherbrum  group  just  shows  its  head 
above  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Baltoro.  The  ample  glacier-lined  curve 
beneath  Bride  Peak  is  one  splendid  cascade.  The  eastern  shoulder  of 
the  mountain  looks  like  a  great  icy  dome,  connected  with  the  ridge  by 
a  rather  pronounced  depression.  It  was  this  depression  which  the 
climbers  must  reach,  by  going  around  back  of  the  shoidder,  for  on  this 
side  it  was  inaccessible. 

Under  these  circumstances,  with  the  difficulties  of  the  way 
aggravated  by  the  fatigue  of  marching  in  deep  snow,  the  idea  of  going 
on  all  together  with  the  luggage  was  given  up,  and  the  Duke  decided 
to  explore  the  glacier  beforehand  with  the  guides,  and  then  to  send 
on  the  caravan,  giving  the  coolies  the  advantage  of  an  already  beaten 
path.  Accordingly  at  dawn  on  the  4th  two  porters  and  eight  coolies 
were  sent  back  to  the  base  for  another  tent  and  some  provisions,  while 
the  Duke  with  Sella  and  the  four  guides  went  on  up  the  seracs. 
Giuseppe  Petigax  and  Enrico  Brocherel  went  ahead,  seeking  a  route 
through  the  labyrinth.  Great  transversal  crevasses  cut  across  their 
path.  Between  these  the  blocks  were  piled  up  in  inextricable  confusion 
and  the  ojienings  of  dark  caverns  and  icy  abysses  yawned  among  them. 
The  ice  blocks  resembled  those  on  the  Newton  glacier  in  Alaska,  in 
having  their  edges  and  corners  rounded  off  and  blunted  by  the  heavy 
layer  of  snow,  which  was  crystalline  in  its  composition,  and  quite  dry 
and  powdery.  It  was  only  after  the  sun  had  been  hot  during  the  day 
that  a  little  crust  would  form  in  the  cold  of  the  night,  making  the 
walking  easier  for  a  few  hours  early  the  next  morning.  But  by 
nine  o'clock  it  would  no  longer  support  the  foot,  and  the  snow-shoes 
proved  of  very  little  use. 

A  way  was  forced  across  the  first  barrier  of  seracs  behind  the  camp. 
Then  the  party  had  to  round  a  gigantic  block,  after  which  they  began 
to  climb  an  icy  prominence  which  seemed  to  offer  them  a  route. 
However,  after  a  little  distance  this  path  also  was  blocked  by  a  crevasse, 

(9221)  V  2 


308 


Chapter    W'll. 


and  they  had  to  go  back  and  strike  farther  to  the  right.  After  some 
very  rough  going  they  reached  a  furrow  where  the  seracs  were  arranged 
in  a  sort  of  alley,  allowing  them  to  make  some  progress  and  gain  a  little 
height.  About  eleven  they  reached  another  barrier  of  blocks,  apparently 
without  any  way  of  access  through  them.     But  the  guides  knew  that 


AMOXC    THE   SKKACS   OF   THE   CHOGOLISA    GLACIER. 


the  broad  and  gentle  slopes  which  they  had  seen  from  below  could  not 
be  very  far  away  now,  and  there  was  no  doubt  that  some  means  of 
conquering  this  last  obstacle  could  be  found.  The  snow  had  become 
unbearable.  Satisfied  with  the  progress  thus  far  made,  the  Duke 
decided  to  turn  back. 

July  5th  was  foggy,  and  there  was  a  httle  sleet.     Sella  took  supplies 
for  a   light   camp,   seven   coohes   and   the   four  guides,   and   retraced 


Bride  Peak.  309 

the  previous  day's  route  in  order  to  profit  by  the  path  made  in  the  snow. 
They  went  well  enough  to  the  point  reached  the  day  before.  The 
guides  then  began  to  skirt  obliquely  upwards  toward  the  left,  searching 
out  a  tortuous  path  among  the  crevasses.  Finally  they  found  a 
prominence  from  which  a  fairly  solid  bridge  led  upon  a  serac,  and  thence 
to  a  depression  on  the  upper  side  of  the  obstacle.  They  went  along  the 
edge  of  this,  always  toward  the  left,  and  beginning  to  see  a  clear  path 
toward  the  great  slopes  at  the  centre  of  the  glacier.  The  coolies  were 
utterly  worn  out.  Moreover,  the  leader  of  the  file  had  broken  through 
a  snow  bridge  and  fallen  iip  to  his  shoulders  in  a  crevasse.  He  himself 
struggled  to  get  free,  and  liis  companions  pulled  on  the  rope  ;  but  he 
was  not  released  imtil  two  of  the  guides  gave  their  help  to  liberate  him 
from  his  awkward  position,  if  not  from  his  terror.  This  episode 
discouraged  the  others  still  more.  Besides,  it  had  begun  to  snow 
heavily,  and  Sella  made  the  wise  decision  to  set  up  the  camp  at  this 
point.  He  sent  back  two  guides  and  the  coolies.  A  little  recoimoitring 
confirmed  the  hope  that  the  most  difiicult  part  was  overcome.  The 
glacier  above  the  camp  was  even  more  broken  than  below,  but  the 
crevasses  were  covered  for  the  most  part,  and  the  slope  grew  gradually 
less  steep. 

It  continued  to  snow  all  night  and  all  the  next  day,  keeping  the 
Duke  inactive  in  the  lower  camp,  as  well  as  Sella  in  the  upper  one.  No 
change  came  on  the  7th,  and  the  Duke  sent  three  guides  and  four  coolies 
to  liberate  Sella  from  his  blockade.  Thus  the  party  was  reunited  at 
Camp  XII.  It  was  the  fifth  day,  and  they  were  still  practically  at  the 
starting-point,  some  1,300  feet  above  the  Baltoro — prisoners,  crowded 
two  apiece  into  the  tiny  Whymper  and  Mimmiery  tents  on  a  narrow 
table  of  glacier  surrounded  by  crevasses  and  buried  in  sjiow.  This  was 
only  the  beginning  of  a  long  siege. 

It  soon  became  necessary  to  think  of  replenishing  the  food  supply. 
Sella,  concluding  that  the  hope  of  photographic  work  was  very  slight 
indeed,  and  feeling  that  the  Duke  ought  to  profit  by  all  the  forces  of  the 
expedition,  made  up  his  mind  to  go  down  himself  to  the  base  camp. 
He  took  Botta,  Savoie  and  the  coolies,  and  they  had  a  most  laborious 
journey  through  the  snow,  which  had,  of  course,  obUterated  every  trace 
of  path.  Xegrotto  and  I  met  them  at  the  camp,  as  before  narrated. 
Next  morning  nine  coolies  set  out  on  the  return  journey  under  the 
guidance  of  Savoie  and  Lorenzo  Petigax.     The}-  never  murmured  or 

(9221)  r  3 


310  Chapter  W'll. 

made  a  .single  objection.  All  ilay  the  bad  weather  held.  The  air  was 
full  of  white  semi-opaque  mist,  .sky  and  snow  were  indistinguishable, 
and  they  could  not  see  100  yards  ahead.  It  was  the  third  day  of 
crouching  in  the  tents,  hearing  the  hght  monotonous  tapping  of  the 
snowflakes  on  the  walls.  It  fell  ceaselessly,  relentlessly.  Their  only 
occupation  was  that  of  occasionally  shaking  the  canvas  to  prevent 
their  being  buried. 

Late  in  the  evening  there  were  signs  of  abatement.  They  even 
had  a  glimpse  of  sky  over  the  valley  through  a  rent  here  and  there  in  the 
clouds.  The  peaks  were  all  hidden,  and  dense  clouds  hung  motionless 
over  the  Concordia.  The  weather  was  very  long  in  clearing,  the  morning 
of  the  9th  being  still  disturbed.  But  gi'adually  the  mountains  stripped 
off  their  mist,  and  came  out  one  after  another  in  purest  and  most 
dazzhng  white.  Where  the  sun  shone  through  the  mists  these  were 
of  a  silvery  brilliance,  and  the  whiteness  of  the  landscape  enhanced  the 
deep  blue  of  the  sky.  Little  spirals  of  snow-dust  curled  along  the  crests, 
lifted  by  the  wind.  Bride  Peak  was  still  shrouded  in  semi-transparent 
cloud,  and  the   mountains  about  the   Concordia   remained  in  shadow. 

Up  above  the  Duke  had  left  his  camp  accompanied  by  all  his 
caravan,  and,  finding  a  route  shorter  than  that  taken  by  Sella,  gained  the 
spot  where  the  latter  had  camped  on  the  5th.  Thence  he  continued  to 
ascend,  making  a  wide  circuit  toward  the  centre  of  the  glacier,  until  he 
was  sure  there  were  no  more  obstacles  to  be  encountered,  save  that 
of  the  deep  snow.  Then  he  placed  his  camp  19.098  feet  above  sea 
level  and  some  1,650  feet  below  Chogolisa  Saddle.  The  weather 
continued  to  improve  all  the  afternoon,  but  not  until  four  o'clock  did  the 
Mustagh  Tower  emerge  from  the  mists  clinging  about  it.  K-  and 
Gasherbrum  rose  high  above  the  mountains  in  the  foreground,  showing 
the  height  to  which  the  party  had  now  attained. 

On  July  10th,  eight  days  after  leaving  the  base  camp,  the  Duke 
succeeded  in  setting  up  camp  on  ChogoUsa  Saddle  at  20,784  feet  of 
altitude,  after  a  march  of  five  hours  up  easy  snow-slopes,  on  a  morning 
perfectly  bright  and  cold.  The  tents  were  erected  on  the  northerl)^ 
slope  of  the  saddle,  just  below  its  highest  point,  in  a  hollow  filled  with 
snow,  which  made  a  good  shelter  from  the  bitter  wind  that  swept  clown 
from  the  brow  of  the  saddle.  The  coolies  were  benumbed  with  cold, 
and  were  sent  back  to  the  lower  camp.  They  had  performed  the  woik 
of  real  Alpine  porters,  coming  up  over  the  seracs  with  full  loads  of 


Bride  Peak.  311 

luggage,  aiul  liad  livt'd  in  camps  on  the  snows  without  fires  and  contrary 
to  all  the  habits  of  their  normal  hves,  all  of  which  proved  how  much 
they  had  been  able  to  adapt  thentselves,  and  showed  the  influence  we 
had  gained  over  them. 

Chogohsa  Saddle  is  between  the  eastern  crest  of  Bride  Peak  and 
a  rounded  icy  dome  21,6.53  feet  high,  on  the  other  side  of  which  is 
Kondus  Saddle,  at  the  foot  of  Golden  Throne.  This  saddle  is  a  httle 
lower  than  Chogolisa.  The  day  was  perfect,  and  the  view  which  the 
Duke  had  fi-om  his  station  a  very  grand  one.  The  three  summits  of 
Broad  Peak  were  visible,  likewise  all  four  of  the  Gasherbrums,  now 
seen  together  for  the  first  time,  rising  between  the  spurs  on  the 
east  of  the  Baltoro  and  the  southern  buttress  of  Golden  Throne. 
Northward  the  horizon  was  closed  by  the  great  ridge  stretching  from 
K-  to  Mustagh  Tower.  The  glaciers  of  Bride  Peak  flung  themselves 
down  to  the  Baltoro  just  beneath  him.  Opposite  that  mountain  the 
western  walls  of  Golden  Throne  completed  the  j)anorama,  these  also 
covered  with  glaciers  from  peaks  to  base.  South  of  the  saddle  continued 
a  series  of  complex  chains,  and  the  Kondus  Valley,  dominated  on  the 
west  by  heights  easily  recognizable  as  K^  K",  K'"  and  K'^  between 
22,736  and  25,426  feet  high,  among  an  infinite  host  of  unnamed 
moimtains  and  unexplored  valleys.  Just  as  from  the  other  cols  climbed 
by  the  expedition,  the  view  was  nothing  but  ice  and  snow  and  rocky 
wilderness  spreading  out  to  the  horizon.  One  felt  as  if  the  inhabited 
earth  had  been  left  behind  for  evei'. 

July  11th  continued  fair,  and  it  was  the  part  of  wisdom  not  to  lose 
an  hour  of  the  auspicious  weather.  No  more  than  4.326  feet  of  vertical 
distance  remained  between  Chogolisa  and  the  summit,  a  height  which 
in  the  Alps  one  could  be  fairly  sure  of  covering  in  a  day.  But  failure 
would  certainly  have  attended  an  attempt  to  finish  the  climb  at  a 
single  stage,  on  account  of  the  enormous  quantity  of  soft  snow.  There 
was  a  good  distance  between  the  camp  and  the  foot  of  the  final  height 
which  had  to  be  covered  by  walking  in  snow  nearly  up  to  the  waist, 
a  performance  the  fatigue  of  which  cannot  be  measured  by  those  who 
have  never  tried  it.  Tlius  tlie  climbers  would  begin  the  actual  ascent 
with  forces  already  depleted,  and  very  likely  still  further  weakened  by 
the  increasing  rarefaction  of  the  air.  On  these  grounds  the  Duke 
decided  to  set  up  an  intermediate  camp  with  the  two  Mummery  tents 
and  four  sleeping-bags. 

(9221)  n  4 


312  Chapter  XVII. 

The  party  of  seven  left  the  shelter  camp  early  in  the  morning. 
They  described  a  broad  curve  in  climbing  to  the  top  of  the  glacier, 
reaching  the  steep  southern  slope  of  the  icy  dome  between  Chogolisa 
and  Bride  Peak.  This  they  traversed  horizontally.  The  snow  made 
very  bad  and  uncertain  walking,  and  they  would  plunge  in  half-way 
up  the  thigh.  This  was  fearfuUy  fatiguing  to  all  the  i^arty,  especially 
the  porters.  At  half-past  eleven  they  stopped,  though  they  had  not 
yet  reached  the  foot  of  the  depression  between  the  dome  and  the  crest, 
and  set  up  the  tents  on  the  slope,  levelhng  off  a  little  ledge  with  their 
feet.  The  three  porters  went  back  to  ChogoUsa  camp,  leaving  Giuseppe 
Petigax,  Enrico  and  Emilio  Brocherel  with  the  Duke.  They  were  now 
at  21,673  feet  of  altitude,  only  3,437  feet  remaining  between  them  and 
the  top.  If  the  weather  held  another  day,  victory  was  in  their  grasp. 
The  day  was  warm,  still  and  fine,  but  toward  the  south-west  were  some 
gradually  thickening  vapours  that  boded  ill.  Threatening  clouds 
rolled  up  on  the  hills,  covering  peaks  and  ranges.  Then  suddenly 
it  seemed  that  the  weather  relented,  the  disheartening  portents 
withdrew,  leaving  at  sunset  only  a  few  insignificant  mist  wreaths  here 
and  there  on  the  heights.  The  prospects  for  the  morrow  were  ver\' 
good. 

At  five  o'clock  on  the  12th  the  party  was  on  the  way.  It  was  a  niikl 
and  foggy  day,  the  air  warm  and  relaxing,  the  snow  already  bad.  The 
guides  took  turns  at  the  head  of  the  rope,  in  anticipation  of  the  hard 
work  that  was  to  come.  They  were  an  hour  and  a  half  in  reaching  the 
foot  of  the  depression,  and  as  much  more  in  climbing  up  to  it  at  the 
base  of  the  ridge.  Two  bergschrunds  were  safely  crossed  by  means 
of  heavy  snow  bridges.  The  mist  grew  denser  and  a  little  wind  had 
sprung  up,  but  not  cold  or  strong  enough  to  be  annoying.  At 
23,000  feet  they  changed  their  snow-shoes  for  crampons,  and  began  to 
ascend  the  ridge.  They  were  obliged  to  cut  the  very  steep  slope  on 
the  side  of  the  crest,  despite  the  evident  danger  of  avalanches  fiom 
the  snow,  which  was  two  feet  deep  and  did  not  form  compactly  with  the 
older  layer  beneath  it,  because  they  must  avoid  the  still  greater  danger 
of  the  cornice  cur\'ing  widely  out  over  the  abyss  to  the  right.  For  two 
hours  and  a  half  they  went  on  at  an  even,  slow  and  cautious  pace. 
Meanwhile  the  fog  grew  worse  and  worse,  and  was  now  so  dense  that 
the  party  stopped  on  a  projecting  rock,  and  taking  counsel  together 
decided  on  the  course  which  was,  under  the  circumstances,  the  only 


Bride  Peak.  313 

wise  oue  to  pursue.  The  danger  was  too  imminent,  and  it  increased 
at  every  step.  They  must  go  back.  They  had  reached  23,458  feet, 
walking  with  slow  and  even  pace,  not  suffering  serious  difficulty  in 
breathing,  nor  palpitation.  They  made  the  descent  in  weather  steadily 
growing  worse,  and  by  the  time  they  reached  Chogolisa,  taking  with 
them  the  intermediate  camp,  it  was  snowing. 

The  fog  hfted  somewhat  towards  evening,  and  they  could  see  the 
extent  over  which  the  storm  raged.  Masses  of  threatening  black  cloud 
wore  constantly  roUing  up  fi'om  the  lower  Baltoro.  The  snows  reflected 
their  tones  of  deep  violet  and  ash  colour.  The  entire  party  slept 
heavily,  being  greatly  fatigued,  while  the  snow  fell  silently  and  ceaselessly 
outside. 

The  blockade  lasted  this  time  for  four  days.  Sometimes  there  was 
a  show  of  relief  from  this  or  that  quarter  of  the  sky,  when  a  brief  and 
sudden  opening  would  break  between  the  clouds.  Of  all  such  the  Duke 
took  advantage  to  study  the  region  as  best  he  might,  and  to  repeat 
a  series  of  observations  to  the  surrounding  mountains  which  he  had 
made  from  Camp  XIII.  I  have  collected  all  these  observations 
in  Chapter  XIX,  in  order  not  to  burden  the  narrative  with  technical 
detail,  and  in  this  place  will  only  describe  the  general  disposition 
of  the  valleys  and  ranges  at  the  head  of  the  Baltoro,  in  so  far  as 
they  may  be  derived  from  the  necessarily  limited  and  fragmentary 
observations  made  l)y  the  Duke  from  Chogohsa  Saddle.  The 
conclusions  are  merely  general,  and  are  not  to  be  taken  in  an  absolute 
sense  ;  but  they  are  worth  recording,  as  they  deal  with  a  region  as  yet 
totally  unknown,  and  may  thus  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  operations  of 
future  explorers. 

The  mass  of  Golden  Throne  looks  much  larger  from  this  point  of 
view  than  when  seen  from  the  north  on  the  Baltoro  glacier.  Its  five 
main  jieaks  rise  above  an  icy  crest  which  runs  from  north-west  to  south- 
oast.  At  the  extremities  of  this  crest  are  two  other  minor  summits — 
21,207  feet  on  the  Baltoro,  and  another,  snovry  like  the  fii-st,  south  of 
the  chain  on  the  Kondus  glacier.  According  to  the  angles  read  by  the 
Duke,  the  highest  peak  of  the  central  group  would  be  the  second  from 
the  north,  23,743  feet  high  (23,600  feet,  Conway).  A  long  snowy  ridge 
descends  thence  to  the  glacier  below  Kondus  Saddle.  Upon  it  is 
Pioneer  Peak,  climbed  by  Conway  in  1892,  with  Major  Bruce,  the  guide 
Zurbriggen,  and  two  Gurkas  from  Xepaul. 


.;i  1 


CliaptcT   WII. 


Gasherbiuni  II  ("iG-SeO  feet)  seems  to  bo  conneeted  with  Hidden 
J'eak  b}'  a  liigh  crest  witli  a  slight  depression  oi-  col  in  it.  so  that  the 
chain  is  practically  unbroken  from  Hidden  to  Broad  Peak.  The  col 
pi'obably  leads  to  the  Gasherbrum  glacier  of  Yonnghiisband.  The  large 
group  of  mountains  at  the  angle  between  the  western  Gasherbrum 
and  Hidden  Peak  must  form  a  separate  system,  detached   from   the 


GOLDEN    THRONE    AND    I'lO.NEER    PEAK,    FROM   THE   SKRACS   OF    THE    CHOCOMSA. 


Gasherbrum.  The  Duke  from  his  high  camps,  as  well  as  we  at  our 
station  at  the  foot  of  Golden  Throne,  saw  several  times  the  western 
ridge  of  Hidden  Peak  lighted  very  far  down  by  the  sunset  rays,  and 
argued  from  this  fact  that  there  is  probably  no  ridge  intervening  between 
Peak  22,139  and  the  Gasherbrums,  but  very  likely  a  valley  instead, 
and  that  the  large  glacier  descending  to  the  Concordia  basin  probably 
gathers  up  the  tributaries  from  the  southern  wall  of  the  Gasherbrums. 

From  Hidden  Peak  to  Golden  Throne  nms  a  crest  with  two  distinct 
depressions  in  it,  about  equal  in  height.  This  crest  closes  in  the  Baltoro 
basin,  separating  it  from  the  head  of  the  Kondus  glacier.  On  the  maps 
of   the   Indian   Survev   the    Kondus   reaches   to   the   southern   base   of 


Bride    IVak.  :}15 

Chogolisa  Saddle  ;  but  it  really  extends  further  eastward  and 
northward,  skirting  the  foot  of  Golden  Throne,  and  ends  in  a  wide  l^a.sin 
confined  on  the  west  by  the  crest  already  mentioned  between  Hidden 
Peak  and  Golden  Throne,  and  on  the  north  by  a  chain  parallel  to  Golden 
Throne.  This  chain  probably  joins  on  to  the  Gasherbrum  range.  Hidden 
Peak  forming  the  connecting  link.  It  contains  a  marked  depres.sion 
between  peaks  of  considerable  height,  and  just  visible  from  Chogolisa,  to 
the  south-east  of  Golden  Throne.  By  this  one  must  have  access  to  the 
Oprang  valley,  and  from  its  position  one  would  judge  that  it  might  be  the 
pass  seen  by  Sir  Francis  Younghusband  at  the  head  of  the  Urdok  glacier. 

LongstafE  believed  that  he  had  identified  this  pass  of  Sir  Francis 
Younghusband  with  a  depression  situated  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
Siachen  glacier.  But  the  latter  lies  farther  beyond,  and  to  the  east- 
south-east.  From  Chogolisa  one  could  see  a  large  valley  running 
between  two  parallel  chains  of  high  mountains  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Kondus  basin  :  and  this,  to  judge  by  its  direction,  must  be  the  Siachen. 
It  is  probably  separated  from  the  Kondus  by  a  ridge  of  no  great  height. 
The  upper  Siachen  has  thus  no  connection  with  the  Baltoro,  the  head 
of  the  Kondus  coming  in  between  the  two.  The  Kondus  descends 
south-west,  encircling  Golden  Throne,  then  soutWard  in  a  deep  channel 
at  the  foot  of  Kondus  and  Chogolisa  Saddles.  The  southern  wall  of 
Chogolisa  is  very  steep — that  of  the  Kondus  was  not  visible  fi'om  the 
Duke's  point  of  observation. 

The  watershed  extends  from  Hidden  Peak  to  the  south-east, 
enclosing  the  Kondus  basin  to  the  north,  and  continuing  in  the  northern 
ridge  of  the  Siachen  as  far  as  Teram  Kangri.  Its  course  east  of  this 
to  the  Karakoram  pass  is  still  unknown. ' 

From  July  13th  to  16th  bad  weather  prevented,  as  I  have  already 
said,  any  fresh  assault  on  the  peak.  The  wind  was  always  south-west 
and  snow  fell  at  frequent  intervals.  The  sky  was  usually  covered  with 
a  uniform  grey  cloud  ;  but  great  cumulus  clouds  were  not  lacking,  of 
the  sort  which  with  us  mean  heavy  storms  usually  accompanied  with 
lightning.  But  we,  as  well  as  all  our  predecessors,  can  testify  to  the 
complete  absence  of  electrical  manifestations  in  the  Karakoram.  In 
all  these  stormy  weeks  we  never  once  saw  a  flash  of  lightning  or  heard 

1  Sec  in  Novarese's  geological  appendix  the  important  conclusions  concerning  the  geology 
of  the  region  and  the  distribution  of  the  chains  and  mountain  systems,  w  hich  are  based  on  these 
observations  of  the  Duke. 


3Ui  Chapter  XVTI. 

thunder.  On  none  of  his  many  excursions  to  the  rocky  spurs  about 
the  Godwin  Austen  and  the  Concordia  did  Sella  see  fulgorites,  neither 
did  the  Duke  upon  the  rocks  of  Bride  Peak.  R.  Strachey  reports  that 
storms  with  electrical  accompaniment  are  very  rare  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  Kumaon-Gahrwal,  but  not  on  the  Tibetan  plateau.  Thomson 
considers  the  infrequency  of  such  ])henomena  north  of  the  Himalaya 
to  be  due  to  the  absence  of  cumulus  clouds,  but  this  explanation  would 
not  hold  for  the  Baltoro.  On  the  other  hand,  the  atmosphere  of  the 
southern  chains  is  so  charged  with  electricity,  even  in  the  absence  of 
storms,  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  equip  the  theodolite  with 
a  portable  lightning-rod  (Purdon).  No  satisfactory  hypothesis  has 
been  produced  for  this  peculiarity  of  the  climate  in  the  Karakoram. 
It  is  certain  that  the  absence  of  electrical  storms  deprives  the  region 
of  a  distinct  element  of  grandeur  and  fascination.  Another  peculiarity 
which  I  should  mention,  probably  related  in  some  way  to  the  regularity 
of  the  periodic  wind,  is  the  stability  of  the  barometer.  It  showed  only 
slight  variation,  and  gave  no  indication  of  approaching  change  in  the 
weather. 

The  health  of  the  party  still  remained  good.  Their  experience  was 
quite  different  from  that  of  Dr.  Workman,  who  believes  it  impossible 
to  sleep  at  heights  of  over  20,000  feet.  The  Duke  and  all  the  guides 
slept  well  and  uninterruptedly,  not  only  at  Chogolisa  Saddle  (over 
20,600  feet),  but  also  in  the  higher  camps  at  21,673  and  22,483  feet, 
despite  the  fact  that  they  were  crowded  by  twos  into  the  two  small 
Mummery  tents.  None  of  them  had  difficulty  in  breathing ;  there  was 
no  headache,  and  their  pulses  were  normal.^  The  only  sign  of  the 
unusual  conditions  under  which  they  were  living  was  the  gradual  loss 
of  appetite,  which,  however,  was  not  accompanied  by  any  other 
abnormal  symptoms.  At  the  end  of  their  campaign  they  were  only 
able  to  eat  lightly  twice  a  day,  and  then  with  considerable  distaste  for 
the  food.  Negrotto  and  I  had  the  Hke  experience  at  the  base  camp, 
whence  I  argue  that  long  sojourns  at  over  16,000  feet  would  probably 

'  List  of  observations  made  on  the  pulse  of  the  party  at  Chogohsa  Saddle,  July  14th : — 

Before  Eating,  After  Eating, 

per  Jlinute.  jwr  jVIinute. 

H.R.H CO  72 

(;iuseppe  Petigax         ...         70  70 

Enrico  Brocherel          70  80 

Emilio  Brocherel          74  84 


Bride  Peak.  -it 

have  ultimately  iiijuiious  results.  Naturally,  we  all  giew  thinner,  and 
suffered  gradual  diniiiuition  of  energy. 

On  the  13th  the  three  porters  came  down  to  the  base  camp  for 
supplies.  At  Camp  XIII  among  the  seracs  they  picked  up  the  cooHes, 
who  had  been  there  alone  since  the  evening  of  the  10th.  Two  of  their 
number,  unable  to  stand  the  continuous  storms,  the  cold  and  loneliness, 
had  roped  themselves  together  the  next  day  and  succeeded  in  finding 
a  way  down  among  the  labjTinth  of  crevasses.  This  was  the  only  case 
of  desertion  in  the  entire  campaign.  The  other  seven  coohes  had  stayed 
faithfully  at  their  post.  We  only  sent  five  of  them  back  from  the 
base  camp,  and  they  and  the  porters  reached  Chogolisa  on  the  16th. 

The  snow  had  ceased.  The  peaks  were  still  hea\'ily  shrouded,  but 
it  seemed  reasonable  to  hope  that  this  improvement  indicated  a  break 
in  the  long  spell  of  bad  weather.  Experience  had  taught  that  the 
respite  would  be  brief,  and  was  to  be  profited  by  to  the  uttermost. 
With  the  purpose  of  expediting  the  march,  the  stores  for  the  shelter 
camp  were  all  carried  up  on  the  day  before  to  the  spot  where  the  party 
had  spent  the  night  of  the  11th.  The  evening  was  not  promising.  The 
top  of  Bride  Peak  freed  itself,  but  above  it  were  high  stratus  and 
cumulus  clouds,  and  the  sun  set  in  the  midst  of  long  bands  of  cirrus. 
However,  the  die  was  cast.  Next  morning,  despite  uncertain  weather, 
the  Duke  set  out  at  half-past  six  with  the  guides  and  porters.  They 
reached  the  point  where  the  suppUes  had  been  deposited,  took  them 
up  and  went  on,  climbing  the  slope  to  the  very  foot  of  the  saddle.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  the  snow  was  as  bad  as  ever.  The  porters 
were  sent  back  to  Chogolisa,  and  the  tents  put  up,  22.483  feet  above 
sea  level  and  only  2,627  feet  below  the  summit  of  the  peak.  This 
figure  is  derived  from  the  pressure  readings  with  the  Fortin  barometer. 
No  one  before  now  had  ever  camped  at  such  a  height,  except  possibly 
Longstaf!.  In  1905  he  passed  a  night  in  the  open  on  the  snowy  crest 
of  Gurla  Mandhata,  at  a  height  tentatively  estimated  by  him  to  be 
about  23,000  feet. 

The  snow  began  again  ;  but  the  guides  kept  on,  with  the  intention 
of  breaking  a  path  to  facilitate  the  next  day's  ascent.  It  did  seem 
as  though  fate  intended  to  be  kind  at  last,  for  aU  was  clear  at  sunset, 
and  a  magnificent  starry  sky  gave  promise  of  a  clear  morrow. 

At  half-past  five  on  the  morning  of  July  18th  the  httle  party  left 
their  shelter.     They  all  realized  that  the  crisis  was  at  hand,  that  the 


oi«  ChaptiT  W'll. 

(lay  would  either  see  their  efforts  crowned  with  success  or  witness  their 
final  discomfiture.  The  air  was  lifeless,  the  sun  weak  and  pale  and 
surrounded  by  a  watery  aureole  of  clouds,  a  sight  of  most  unfavourable 
augury.  As  far  up  as  the  shoulder  the  snow  was  fairly  compact,  and 
allowed  good  progress.  In  an  hour  they  had  reached  the  top  of 
the  shoulder,  and  stood  at  23,000  feet.  All  about  them  the  mist  had 
closed  in,  a  danger  graver  than  any  other  for  the  mountain  climber, 
concealing  surrounding  perils,  and  making  it  impossible  to  contend  with 
obstacles  by  rendering  them  invisible. 

They  had  reconnoitred  on  the  12th  the  first  part  of  the  route. 
Beyond  this  they  guided  themselves  by  their  recollection  of  the  ridge 
as  it  appeared  from  below.  Thus  they  reached  some  rocks  rising  from 
the  snow  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance  from  the  summit.  They  knew 
thev  had  to  keep  in  midway  between  the  cornice  and  a  great  open 
crevice  a  little  way  below.  The  snow  was  very  trying,  being  over 
two  feet  deep,  and  the  grade  was  steep.  The  foot  went  down  so  far  at 
everv  step  that  one  felt  there  was  no  solid  ground  beneath.  At  every 
ominous  creaking  of  the  snow  they  were  obhged  to  bear  away  obliquely 
toward  the  cornice,  until  the  appearance  of  fissures  and  the  breath  of 
a  cold  wind  from  below  warned  them  that  they  were  hanging  over  the 
abyss.  Again  they  would  cut  the  slope  farther  down,  until  at  no  great 
distance  from  them  an  extent  of  snow  would  detach  itself  with  a  crack 
and  slide  rustling  down  toward  the  gap.  The  pickaxes  sunk  to  the 
handle  without  meeting  any  resistance,  so  there  was  no  hope  of  their 
being  able  to  stop  the  snow  from  sliding.  Nothing  could  be  seen  beyond 
a  few  yards,  but  they  reaUzed  that  bottomless  gulfs  opened  on  every 
side. 

Thus  they  cUmbed  for  four  and  a  half  hours,  slowly  and  evenly, 
making  brief  halts  every  fifteen  minutes.  They  breathed  quickly  but 
not  laboriously,  and  their  fatigue  was  not  very  great,  despite  the  steep 
grade,  the  heaviness  of  the  snow  and  the  lifeless  air.  By  11  o'clock 
they  had  gained  the  prominence  of  rock  noted  from  below — 24,278  feet 
up — and  after  a  short  rest  they  essayed  to  chmb  it.  It  was  firm  and 
sohd  rock  coated  here  and  there  w-ith  verglas,  but  directly  they  had 
to  climb  with  hands  as  well  as  feet  great  difficulty  in  breathing  became 
apparent,  and  their  progress  was  very  slow.  The  rocks  were  conquered 
in  two  hours,  and  the  Duke  beheved  himself  to  be  at  last  upon  the 
terminal  crest.     Instead  of  this  another  tract  of  steep  snow-covered 


liride  Peak.  ni9 

slope  stretched  away  vaguely  into  the  niist  above  them.  They  knew 
the  cornice  was  on  their  right,  and  on  the  left  the  mountain  side  fell 
precipitously,  nigged  with  seracs  just  dimly  seen.  It  would  have  been 
madness  to  go  on  blindlv,  over  a  slope  of  unknown  inclination,  even 
the  general  direction  of  which  had  not  been  made  out  from  below, 
edged  with  a  wide  cornice  and  covered  with  deep  and  treacherous  snow. 
The  calm  mild  weather  permitted  them  to  stop  awhile,  in  the  faint 
hope  that  some  fugitive  wind  would  brush  away  the  mists.  The  Fortin 
barometer  registered  I23-.2  ^^•>  the  temperature  stood  at  21°  F.,  and  the 
tension  of  aqueous  vapour  was  -3%  in.  These  observations,  corrected  by 
reference  to  those  of  the  stations  of  Srinagar,  Leh,  Skardu  and  Gilgit, 
gave  a  height  of  24,600  feet.  ^ 

They  waited  for  two  hours.  At  half-past  three  the  weather  was 
unchanged,  and  the  Duke  was  forced  to  give  the  order  for  retreat. 
There  was  a  long  and  dangerous  descent  to  be  made  before  nightfall. 
Neither  he  nor  any  of  his  three  companions  noticed  any  ill  effects  from 
the  rarefaction  of  the  air.  All  their  pulses  were  regular,  only  a  little 
over  100.  They  had  climbed  to  within  .510  feet  of  the  summit,  and 
there  is  no  manner  of  doubt  that,  given  a  clear  atmosphere,  even  with 
the  bad  condition  of  the  snow,  they  would  have  completed  the  ascent 
in  a  couple  of  hours  and  reached  25,110  feet. 

Slowly  and  cautiously  as  they  had  come  up,  they  returned,  retracing 
their  track  in  the  treacherous  snow.  From  the  shoulder  down  they  were 
able  to  proceed  somewhat  more  rapidly.  The  porters  and  cooUes  were 
waiting  for  them  at  the  tents.  It  was  once  more  snowing  hard,  but 
the  Duke  was  anxious  to  break  camp  and  get  down  to  Chogohsa,  and 
the  strength  of  all  proved  fully  equal  to  the  task.  They  reached 
Chogolisa  Saddle  at  eight  o'clock  after  a  day  of  fourteen  and  a  half 
hours.  Of  these,  at  least  eleven  had  been  spent  in  strenuous  exertion 
between  22,483  and  24,600  feet. 

The  readings  taken  by  the  Duke  on  an  aneroid  barometer  from  time 
to  time  during  the  march  allow  us  to  estimate  the  vertical  distance 

'  These  barometric  calculations  could  not  be  referred  to  the  Rdoka.«s  base,  because  the 
observations  were  unfortunately  broken  ofT  on  July  l;')th  (see  the  tables  of  Prof.  Oinodei  in  the 
Appendix).  On  the  maps  of  the  expedition  first  published  by  the  Italian  (leog.  Soe.  and  the 
Ital.  Alp.  Club,  the  height  gained  by  the  Duke  is  given  as  7,493  metres  (24,583  feet).  This  and 
some  other  small  variations  between  the  present  figures  and  those  first  published  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  readings  from  the  Gilgit  Meteorological  Station  were  only  later  introduced  into  the 
calculations,  in  addition  to  those  of  Leh,  tSkardu  and  Srinagar. 


:v>o  Chapter  XVII. 

gained  per  hour.  In  seven  and  a  quarter  hours  of  marching  they  had 
made  2,117  feet  of  height,  or  292  feet  an  hour.  If  we  subtract  from 
this  the  ascent  of  the  rocks,  which  of  itself  took  two  hours,  the  result 
for  the  entire  distance  over  the  snows  is  341  feet  per  hour.  In  the 
first  hour  517  feet  were  gained.  From  then  on  the  apportionment  was 
as  follows  :  between  23,000  and  23,458  feet,  396  feet  per  hour  ;  between 
23,458  and  24,278  feet,  273  feet ;  and  in  the  last  stretch,  on  the  steep 
rocks,  160  feet.  This  last  figure  confirms  the  opinion  of  many  mountain 
climbers  that,  unless  there  are  snow  slopes  to  march  upon,  the  highest 
summits  of  the  earth  vnW  never  be  conquered,  as  the  climbing  of  rocks 
is  too  exhausting  at  the  low  atmospheric  pressure  of  great  altitudes. 
The  average  rate  of  the  Duke  is  far  below  that  made  by  Graham  during 
his  contested  ascent  of  Kabru  in  1883.  He  claimed  to  have  covered 
a  vertical  distance  of  5,400  feet,  between  18,500  and  23,900  feet,  with 
an  average  per  hour  of  650  feet.  LongstafE  ascended  Trisul  in  1906, 
leaving  his  camp  at  17,450  feet  and  reaching  the  summit  (23,406  feet) 
in  ten  hours,  with  an  average  approximately  the  same  as  tliat  of 
Graham,  595  feet  per  hour.  These,  however,  were  both  ascents  made 
under  favourable  conditions  of  weather,  snow,  etc.,  and  every 
mountaineer  knows  the  vast  difference  between  this  and  marching  in 
deep  soft  snow.  Thus  it  will  not  cause  any  surprise  that  in  the  ascent 
of  Bride  Peak  the  time  taken  to  gain  a  Hke  vertical  distance  was  nearly 
double.  It  seems  probable  that  in  clear  weather,  and  with  the  snow  in 
good  condition,  the  top  of  the  peak  could  be  reached  from  Chogolisa  in 
about  ten  hours. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  enterprise  of  the  Duke  was 
carried  out  give  it  an  experimental  value  much  more  convincing  than 
that  possessed  by  any  of  the  other  known  records.  The  latter  have 
often  been  real  over-strains,  outside  of  the  physiological  field,  and  their 
success  has  been  due  to  the  presence  of  especially  favourable  conditions. 
First  of  all,  the  Duke  and  his  guides  have  given  the  best  evidence  we 
have  thus  far  of  the  resistance  of  human  beings  during  long  stays  at  the 
highest  altitudes,  and  of  the  possibility  of  severe  and  continued  exertion 
at  such  heights.  He  and  his  guides  lived  for  thirty-seven  days  at  or 
above  16,000  feet,  and  then  for  another  seventeen  were  never  below 
18,000  feet,  of  which  nine  were  spent  at  and  above  21,000  feet — all  this 
under  the  disadvantage  of  cramped  accommodation,  almost  constant 
bad  weather,  and  with  nourishment  reduced  from  want  of  appetite. 


Bride   IVak.  321 

During  this  period  tliey  iiuulo  two  ascents,  which  meant  four  days  of 
the  most  fatiguing  work,  sleeping  at  21,673  and  22,483  feet,  and  reaching 
23,458  and  24,600  feet  of  altitude. 

The  height  attained  by  the  Duke  exceeds  by  700  feet  the  greatest 
altitude  up  to  then  achieved  by  men  upon  the  mountains.  In  1883 
Graham  made  a  series  of  notable  ascents  in  the  Himalaya  of  Gahrwal, 
after  which  he  went  to  Sikkim  with  the  guides  Emil  Boss  and  Ulrich 
Kaufmann,  and  stated  that  he  had  climbed  the  Kabru  up  to  the  saddle 
a  little  below  the  summit,  23,900  feet  high.  Twenty-eight  years  before, 
the  brothers  Schlagintweit  had  reached  about  22,250  feet  in  an  ascent 
of  Kamet  in  the  Nanda  Devi  group  in  Gahrwal.  During  the  interval 
no  other  approach  to  this  height  was  made,^  except  by  M.  Wiener,  who 
climbed  Mount  IlUmani,  in  the  Bolivian  Andes,  21,224  feet  high.  Most 
mountaineers  believed  at  that  time  that  such  ascents  must  invariably 
be  attended  by  serious  physical  consequences.  The  ease  which  Graham 
asserted  had  marked  his  ascent  of  Kabru  was  considered  to  throw  doubt 
on  the  actuality  of  the  performance,  and  the  incomplete  and  cursory 
account  of  the  enterprise  gave  ground  for  much  dispute  among  mountain 
climbers — dispute  which  only  ceased  when,  in  1907,  Rubenson  and 
Monrad  Aas  climbed  the  Kabru,  or  at  least  the  saddle  between  the 
two  peaks.  Their  account  seems  at  first  blush  to  show  more 
improbability  than  the  succinct  narrative  of  Graham.  The  undertaking 
was  not  the  result  of  a  deliberately  concerted  plan,  but  was  rather  of 
ah  almost  casual  nature.  The  two  explorers  were  obliged  to  live  for 
two  weeks  on  reduced  rations,  and  they  made  their  ascent  alone,  up 
dangerous  ice  slopes,  wearing  shoes  from  which  the  nails  had  been 
removed  to  prevent  their  feet  from  freezing.  They  descended  for  the 
most  part  at  night  by  moonlight,  etc.,  etc.  Yet  no  one  cast  a  doubt  upon 
their  veracity.  Nor  do  I  wish  for  a  moment  to  call  it  in  question, 
convinced  as  I  am  that  their  account  must  inspire  the  most  complete 

'  Some  noteworthy  climbing  exploits  performed  between  18.55  and  188:i  by  members  of  the 
Trigonometrical  Survey,  and  until  very  recently  buried  among  the  oftieial  records,  have  been 
brought  to  light  by  Dr.  Longstaff.  In  1874  J.  S.  Pococke  gained  22,000  feet  in  (Uvhrwal,  and  in 
tlie  same  year  \V.  L.  Johnson  crossed  a  mountain  crest  of  Ladakh  at  a  height  of  22,300  feet, 
and  likewi.se,  in  1865,  climbed  three  peaks  of  the  Kuen  Lun  chain,  north  of  the  Karakoram— 
E57,  E58  and  E61,  whose  respective  heights  of  21,767,  21,071  and  2:!,8!)0  feet  have  been  deter- 
mined by  triangulation.  I  will  not  dwell  upon  the  doubts  east  upon  the  authenticity  of  these 
climbs,  merely  referring  to  the  article  of  Dr.  Longstaff  in  Alp.  Jour.  24,  1908,  p,  133,  See 
also  Mountain  Sickness.  London  190(),  by  the  same  author;  and  A.  L,  Mumm,  Fife  Months  in 
the  Himalaya.     London  1909, 

(9221)  X 


322  CllJiptcr   XVII. 

belief.  But  its  acceptance  by  mountain  climbers  in  general  is  the  best 
evidence  of  the  great  change  which  has  taken  place  in  current  opinion 
upon  the  possibiUty  of  ascending  to  great  heights  without  marked 
physical  disturbance.  Beyond  a  doubt  this  change  of  ground  is  due 
to  the  conquest  of  high  peaks  which  has  been  slowly  going  forward  all 
the  while. 

In  order  to  avoid  a  lengthened  list  I  will  confine  myself  here  to 
ascents  of  23,000  feet  and  over.  In  1897  S.  M.  Vines,  a  member  of  the 
E.  A.  FitzGerald  expedition,  with  the  guide  A.  Burgener,  climbed 
Mount  Aconcagua,  23.100  feet  high.  In  1903  Dr.  AVorkman  reached 
a  height  of  23.394  feet  on  the  ridge  of  a  mountain  at  the  head  of  the 
Chogo  Lungma  glacier.  Longstaff  chmbed  to  a  consideral)le  height 
on  the  ridge  of  Gurla  Mandhata  in  1905 — probably  beyond  23,000  feet, 
though  instrumental  observations  of  the  altitude  were  lacking.  In 
1906  Mrs.  Workman  climbed  a  peak  of  23,264  feet  in  the  Nun  Kun 
group  ;  and  in  the  same  year  Longstaff  conquered  Trisul,  23,406  feet. 
Thus  in  twenty-six  years,  from  1883  to  1909,  no  one  exceeded  the  height 
supposed  to  have  been  reached  by  Graham ;  and  this,  after  the 
Norwegian  achievement,  became  the  official  record. 

However,  the  greatest  importance  of  the  Duke's  ascent  does  not, 
I  repeat,  lie  in  its  having  surpassed  by  700  feet  this  official  record.  Its 
significance  lies  rather  in  its  having  been  made  under  such  unfavourable 
conditions  of  snow  and  weather.  This  gives  it  a  value  above  any  of 
the  others  in  relation  to  the  problem  of  the  possible  ascent  of  our 
greatest  peaks. 

I  would  call  attention,  as  especially  worthy  of  remark,  to  the  fact 
that  the  Duke  was  able  to  take  the  coolies  up  to  the  highest  camp, 
22,483  feet  high,  and  that  they  lived  under  the  most  adverse  conditions 
for  more  than  two  weeks  among  the  snow  and  seracs  of  the  glacier 
flowing  down  fi'om  Chogolisa  Saddle.  If  the  snow  had  been  firm,  the 
weather  fine,  and  other  conditions  favourable  there  would  have  been 
no  great  difficulty  in  getting  them  to  transport  a  camp  even  as  high 
up  as  the  eastern  shoulder  of  Bride  Peak  (over  23,000  feet),  an 
altitude  from  which  it  would  be  possible  to  reach  to  above  26,000  feet 
in  one  day. 

Then  as  regards  the  physiological  possibility  of  still  higher  ascents, 
the  Duke's  experience  was  such  as  to  encourage  other  explorers.  It  is 
unlikely  that  any  disturbance  of  the  system  caused  by  low  atmospheric 


Bride  Peak.  323 

pressure  under  ordinary  mountaineering  conditions  would  appear 
suddenly  and  without  warning,  even  without  a  previous  loss  of  energy 
to  a  considerable  degree.  It  is  fair  to  conclude,  from  the  good  physical 
condition  of  the  Duke  and  his  guides  at  24,600  feet  and  from  the  absence 
of  any  ill  result  of  their  long  stay  at  this  altitude,  that  if  the  feat  had 
been  attempted  when  the  expedition  first  reached  the  Baltoro,  with 
each  member  at  the  maximum  of  his  powers  and  the  mountains  covered 
with  old  compact  snow,  it  would  probably  have  been  crowned  with 
complete  success. 

But  between  Bride  Peak  and  the  top  of  Mount  Everest  there  is 
nearly  4,000  feet  of  difference  in  height.  It  would  surely  be  idle  to 
predict  the  outcome  of  an  attempt  on  the  latter.  Only  continued  tests 
will  solve  the  problem.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  select  a  peak  of  more 
than  26,000  feet,  where  natives  will  be  available  for  portage,  where  it 
would  be  easy  to  get  the  camps  up  to  a  considerable  altitude,  and  where, 
at  least  for  the  last  few  thousand  feet,  there  could  be  found  a  route 
over  snow,  without  great  obstacles  and  not  too  steep.  The  highest 
peaks  of  the  Karakoram  are  not  adapted  for  the  experiment,  on  account 
of  their  intrinsic  difficulties.  Kinchinjunga  and  Nanga  Parbat  are 
likewise  very  problematic  ;  and  if  on  closer  examination  their  rivals 
of  Xepaul  present  as  great  obstacles,  there  is  httle  hope  of  our 
conquering  any  of  the  greatest  giants  of  the  earth  by  ordinary 
mountaineering  methods.  ^ 

The  campaign  was  at  an  end.  There  had  been  one  single  day  of  fine 
weather  in  the  last  two  weeks,  and  there  was  little  reason  to  hope  for 
betterment.  Under  16,000  feet  the  glaciers  were  being  visibly  consimied 
by  melting,  while  on  the  high  mountains  the  fresh  snow  piled  higher 
with  every  day.  Another  factor  was  the  decrease  of  our  physical  forces, 
due  to  repugnance  to  food. 

On  the  morning  of  the  19th  the  tents  and  other  impedimenta  were 
put  together,  and  in  a  heav}'  snowstorm  the  Duke  abandoned  Chogolisa 
Saddle  with  guides  and  coolies,  and  descended  to  the  former  camping 
place,  among  the  seracs,  covering  two  stages.  The  powerful  radiation  of 
the  fog  and  snow  had  swollen  and  reddened  the  eyes  of  the  Duke  and 
Giuseppe  Petigax.  On  July  20th,  in  the  forenoon,  Negrotto  and  I 
welcomed  our  returned  leader  to  the  base  camp.     He  did  not  wait  for 

'  I  have  included  in  Cliapter  XIX  the  conclusions  which  are  to  be  drawn  from  the  Duke's 
expedition  with  regard  to  the  pliysiological  aspect  of  the  problem  of  high  mountaineering. 
(9221)  X  -2 


324  Chapter  XVTl. 

even  a  day  of  rest.  The  camp  was  dismantled  in  a  heavy  rain,  and 
the  expedition  took  up  tlie  I'cturn  march,  carrying  all  the  equipment, 
for  which  purpose  thirty-five  coolies  had  come  from  Rdokass  on  the 
evening  of  the  18th.  The  crash  of  avalanches  from  Golden  Throne 
followed  our  retreat,  Hke  a  last  threat  from  the  mountains,  victorious 
but  not  yet  appeased.  The  coolies  were  jubilant,  and  despite  the 
rapid  march,  the  rain  and  the  heavy  loads,  they  chattered  incessantly, 
our  faithful  fifteen  of  the  high  mountains  relating  to  their  fellows  from 
Rdokass  the  experiences  of  the  past  few  weeks.  But  the  rest  of  us 
were  silent  and  depressed,  under  the  evil  fate  that  had  snatched  from 
the  Duke  the  prize  of  so  much  labour  and  ])erseverance,  after  it  had 
lain  almost  within  his  grasp. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


THE    RETURN    TO    SRINAGAR. 

Suminor  on  the  Baltoro  Glacier.  —  Rdokass.  —  Descent  of  the  Biaho  Valley.  —  Jhula  Bridge  over 
the  Punmah.  —  Askoley.  —  Braldoh  Bridge.  —  Skoro  La.  —  Gorges  of  the  Skoro  Lumba.  — 
Shigar. — Travelling  on  Zhaks.  —  .Skardu. — Burgi  La. — The  Deosai  Table-land.  —  Sar- 
singar  and  Stakpi  La.  —  The  Dards.  —  The  Kishen  Cianga  Valley.  —  Rajdiangan  Pass.  — 
Bandipur.  —  On  the  Wular  and  up  the  Jhelum  —  We  enter  Srinagar. 


On  July  20th  we  turned  our  backs 
upon  the  mountains.  Sleet  was 
faUing,  turning  now  and  then  to 
actual  rain.  The  moisture  gave 
briUiance  and  relief  to  the  multi- 
coloured stones  of  the  median 
moraines  of  the  Baltoro.  When  we 
liad  about  reached  the  level  of  the 
right-hand  spur  of  the  Vigne 
valley  we  made  our  camp,  for  the 
Duke  and  the  guides  had  already 
that  day  made  the  descent  from  the 
seracs  of  the  Chogolisa  glacier,  and, 
moreover,  their  eighteen  days  of 
hardship  had  left  distinct  marks 
upon  them.  Next  day  we  followed 
the  curve  of  the  moraine  into  the 
Concordia,  and  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  lower  Baltoro,  not  getting 
a  single  fleeting  glimpse  of  K-  or  Bride  Peak,  or  any  other  of  the 
splendid  host  that  two  months  before  had  received  us  with  such  calm 
serenity.  We  soon  forsook  the  median  moraine  to  follow  the  strip  of 
ice  between  it  and  the  left  edge,  and  then  began  the  fatiguing  business 
of  chmbing  over  the  great  wavelike  inequalities  of  the  surface.  A 
stormy  and  violent  torrent  cut  its  course  in  a  deep  winding  furrow 
between  two  moraines,  but  we  were  able  to  cross  it  by  means  of  a 

(9221)  .\  3 


32G  Chapter  X\'III. 

massive  ice  bridge.  In  five  hours  of  steady  marching  we  had  passed 
the  mouth  of  the  second  left-hand  tributary,  and  made  our  stage  inside 
an  immense  conical  depression,  the  bottom  of  which  was  occui)ied  by 
a  dull  and  turbid  little  lake.  Opposite  us  was  the  wide  Younghusband 
valley,  back  of  which,  toward  evening,  we  had  a  view  of  Mustagh  Tower, 
surrounded  by  heavy  clouds.  It  looked  from  here  entirely  different, 
but  was,  as  always,  an  imposing  spectacle.  The  intemperate  weather 
cut  off  all  view  of  the  rest  of  the  landscape. 

Quite  unexpectedly  the  morning  of  July  22nd  dawned  clear  and 
calm.  The  view  we  had  before  us  was  almost  precisely  that  of 
panorama  Q,  which  Sella  took  a  few  days  earlier  at  a  point  somewhat 
higher  up,^  showing  the  tip  of  K'^  just  to  the  right  of  Crystal  Peak, 
the  massive  brow  of  Broad  Peak  behind  Marble  Point  and 
Gasherbrum  IV,  next  to  which  the  snowy  cone  of  Gasherbrum  III  is 
seen  in  profile.  The  panorama  hkewise  gives  a  very  good  idea  of  the 
tall  median  moraine  of  the  Baltoro.  The  moraines  are,  however,  quite 
run  together  here,  and  the  glacier  seems  to  be  uniformly  covered  with 
stones.  We  can  hardly  believe  that  the  side  spurs  of  the  valley,  now 
bare  and  black  and  dotted  here  and  there  with  bits  of  vegetation,  with 
only  some  vestiges  of  ice  near  the  tops,  are  the  same  ones  that  two 
months  before  had  looked  so  impressive  in  their  winter  mantles  of  snow. 
The  tributary  glaciers  have  become  deeply  imbedded  in  their  valleys, 
and  their  fronts,  that  once  stood  up  so  high  and  white,  are  flattened  and 
buried  in  moraine.  Deep  winding  channels  run  down  from  their  sides, 
filled  with  ice  soiled  by  dust  and  detritus.  The  two  glaciers  Mundu 
and  Yermanendu  are  the  only  ones  to  preserve  their  size  and  purity. 
They  hang  down  like  trailing  draperies  from  the  majestic  Masherbrum, 
parted  by  a  jagged  rocky  crest.  We  cut  across  the  front  of  them  in 
following  the  left-hand  moraine  of  the  Baltoro,  which  is  formed  of 
blocks  and  detritus  of  granites,  gneiss  and  quartzes  from  all  the  length 
of  the  chain  from  Bride  Peak  to  Masherbrum.  It  was  a  very  wearying 
march.  We  passed  valleys  and  deep  pits  200  or  300  feet  deep,  full  of 
surface  water  or  running  streams.  Great  blocks  were  poised  on  the 
ridges  or  ice  pillars,  looking  as  if  a  breath  might  dislodge  them.  On 
our  way  down  we  noticed  the  increase  of  rocks  and  stones  with  blunt 
and  rounded  angles  and  edges. 

•  This  panorama,  taken  with  panorama  B  and  the  small  picture  of  the  lower  Baltoro  inserted 
at  p   194,  gives  the  whole  northern  ehain  of  the  Baltoro  in  all  its  detail. 


The  Return  to  Srinao:ar.  327 


*& 


After  a  last  laborious  crossing  of  the  slopes,  we  reached  the  bottom 
of  a  large  furrow  between  the  glacier  and  the  buttress  of  Rdokass,  and 
here  quite  suddenly  we  found  ourselves  walking  on  earth — soft,  elastic 
and  covered  with  high  grass  full  of  flowers.  The  change  almost  took 
our  breath  away.  All  our  senses  welcomed  the  wonderful  phenomena 
of  life  to  which  we  had  been  so  long  strangers — the  odour  of  earth  and 
grass  and  the  delicate  manifold  scents  pervading  the  air,  the  colours  of 
the  flowers  and  butterflies,  the  chatter  and  rustle  of  birds,  even  the 
clucking  of  hens  and  the  bleating  of  the  feeding  goats.  It  all  seemed 
like  a  miracle. 

We  were  welcomed  by  Mr.  Baines,  rejoicing  over  the  end  of  his  long 
and  lonely  exile,  by  Alessio  Brocherel,  now  quite  restored  to  health, 
the  Wazir  of  Shigar  and  the  Shikari  Abdullali.  Our  coolies  of  the  high 
mountains  went  up  one  by  one  to  salute  the  Wazir  and  Abdullah, 
bowing  so  as  to  touch  the  ground  with  their  hands,  then  placing  the 
latter  on  breast  and  forehead,  and  finishing  by  four  or  five  close 
embraces,  in  which  their  heads  came  over  each  other's  shoulders  without 
touching.  We  meanwhile  were  slowly  ascending  the  slope  under  a 
fire  of  salaams  from  the  coolies  lined  up  in  rows  on  the  boulders,  and 
reaching  the  tents,  where  all  manner  of  luxuries  were  waiting  for  us, 
chief  among  them,  to  our  minds,  being  a  bath  of  deliciously  hot  water. 

Only  Sella  was  absent,  and  soon  after  our  arrival  we  looked  for  him 
with  the  telescope,  and  spied  him  on  the  snowy  crest  nearly  4,000  feet 
above  camp,  whither  he  had  climbed  with  Botta  and  a  coolie  to  take 
panorama  B.  He  only  rejoined  us  by  nightfall,  after  a  difficult  and 
not  altogether  safe  descent.  Then  we  all  gathered  together  around 
a  brazier,  and  until  late  at  night  talked  over  the  events  of  the  campaign. 
Sella,  ou  leaving  the  base  camp  at  Bride  Peak,  had  spent  ten  days  on 
the  Baltoro  with  Botta  and  a  coolie,  taking  advantage  of  the  caravans 
that  went  up  and  down  to  shift  his  simple  outfit,  which  consisted  of  a 
sleeping-bag  and  a  tarpaulin.  He  made  two  excursions  from  the 
upper  Baltoro  to  the  terminal  crest  of  the  right-hand  spur  of  the  Vigne, 
and  had  been  successful  in  collecting  a  number  of  photographs, 
notwithstanding  the  almost  continuous  bad  weather. 

July  23rd  was  spent  in  rearranging  all  the  equipment  and  disposing 
it  for  transport  down  the  valley,  ^\'o  distiibuted  among  the  coolies 
all  the  small  presents  we  had  left — needles,  thread,  string,  coloured 
handkerchiefs,  etc.     Our  faithful  servants  of  the  high  mountains  were 

(9^21)  X  4 


328 


Chapter  XVIII. 


presented  with  the  outfit  they  had  used  in  camp,  and  went  to  work  at 
once  to  cut  up  and  distribute  the  sail-cloth  of  the  tents.  Pure  joy 
reigned  among  the  cooUes,  whose  number  was  now  increased  by  100 
sent  up  from  Askoley.  The  shepherds  departed  with  their  flocks  and 
herds,  now  in  much  better  condition  than  on  their  arrival.  At  night 
the  coolies  performed  a  strange  ritual  of  prayer,  consisting  of  high  and 
rhythmic  cries,  accompanied  by  violent  beating  of  the  breast.  We 
thought  this  might  be  a  service  of  thanksgiving  for  escape  from  peril. 


DETACHMENT   OF   COOLIES   WHO    WERE   \VTTH    US    Df    THE    HIGH    MOUNTAINS. 

A  JEMADAR. 


I.V   THE    CENTRE 


A  very  long  and  tiring  march  on  the  24th  brought  us  down  the  rest 
of  the  Baltoro  to  Paiju.  It  took  two  hours  to  get  the  caravan  ready 
for  a  start.  Beside  his  load,  each  cooUe  carried  a  bizarre  collection  of 
objects — boxes,  milk  tins,  mismated  snow-shoes,  etc.,  all  the  useless 
rubbish  of  the  expedition,  which  to  them  was  treasure  of  the  highest 
worth. 

The  snows  of  May  had  all  vanished  from  about  Rdokass,  and  the 
bushes  of  the  little  glen  near  the  camp  had  all  been  cut  to  feed  the 
coolies'  fires.  We  descended  upon  the  glacier,  and  followed  its  left-hand 
moraine  to  the  end,  only  leaving  it  once  to  traverse  a  short  stretch  of  the 


The  Return  to  Srinagar.  329 

slope  near  Rhobutse.  Throughout  all  its  length  the  side  of  the  glacier 
fell  steeply,  forming  a  gorge  where  a  brawling  torrent  flowed.  The 
sky  was  overcast  and  the  air  somewhat  heavy.  The  moraine  surface 
was  fearfully  con\'nlsed,  immensely  more  difficult  to  walk  on  than  it 
had  been  when  we  came  up.  Now  and  then  torrents  of  considerable 
force  twist  and  wind  across  our  path,  the  lower  banks  of  which,  as 
Conway  had  noted,  were  all  undermined  by  water  and  had  overhanging 
edges.  Eight  hours  of  marching  brought  us  to  a  point  where  we  could 
see,  from  an  elevation  on  the  glacier,  the  valley  of  the  Biaho,  still  far 
away.  The  last  part  of  tlie  march  was  the  most  trying,  the  waves  all 
running  transversely  so  as  to  necessitate  continual  climbing  up  and 
down  over  loose  stones.  Just  above  the  snout  of  the  glacier  we  crossed 
over  to  the  right  side,  and  had  quickly  cHmbed  down  the  steep  front 
at  the  same  point  where  sixty-seven  days  before  we  had  ascended  it. 
It  looked  precisely  the  same,  and  showed  no  signs  of  having  moved 
since  May.  Another  hour,  making  ten  in  all,  brought  us  to  the  oasis 
of  Paiju.  The  cooUes  had  held  out  splendidly.  It  was  raining,  and 
we  speedily  betook  ourselves  to  our  sleeping-bags,  falling  asleep  to  the 
murmur  of  the  stream,  a  sound  different  indeed  from  the  crashing  of 
avalanches  which  had  disturbed  our  slumbers  in  the  high  mountains. 

We  were  unable  to  go  down  the  wide  sandy  bed  of  the  valley  as  we 
had  come  up,  on  account  of  the  increased  size  of  the  river.  It  dashed 
stormily  against  the  rocks  of  the  right  valley  wall,  carrying  down  loads 
of  sand  and  frequent  small  blocks  of  ice,  and  we  were  obhged  to  cross 
over  high  on  the  slope,  an  inconvenient  and  tiresome  route.  Some 
of  the  alluvial  terraces  looked  as  though  they  might  offer  a  level  path, 
but  when  we  reached  them  we  found  them  cut  with  deep  trenches  and 
gullies,  full  of  streams  and  showing  e\'ident  traces  of  former  mud 
streams.  We  only  encountered  one  large  torrent  on  our  way,  and 
happily  it  was  divided  into  many  branches,  none  of  them  too  big  to 
ford.  The  valley  was  remarkably  barren,  without  a  single  stretch  of 
verdure  as  large  as  that  at  Rdokass.  We  saw  a  few  thorny  bushes  of 
astragalus,  some  artimesia,  myricaria  and  e-phedra,  and  a  small  potentilla. 
We  camped  near  the  mouth  of  the  Punmah  valley,  where  we  had  stopped 
on  our  upward  march.     At  evening  it  rained  again. 

The  Punmah,  which  in  May  we  had  forded  without  difficulty,  had 
now  become  a  boisterous  stream,  obliging  us  to  climb  up  its  valley  for 
over  two  miles  to  a  place  where  there  was  a  jhula  bridge  across  a  narrow 


330 


Chapter  XVIII. 


gorge.  All  easy  path  led  to  it,  but  was  broken  by  a  large  stream  which, 
at  this  season,  could  only  be  forded  in  the  morning  hours,  when  it  was 
at  its  lowest.  Here  we  found  a  number  of  coolies  on  the  slope,  with  the 
little  herd  of  goats.  The  bridge  was  in  fair  condition,  though  rather 
long  and  swaying.  After  crossing  it,  we  stopped  for  nearly  an  hour 
to    enjoy    the  sight    of    the  passage    of    the    caravan.      Jemadars    and 


BRIDGE   OVER   THE    PUNMAII. 


chuprassis  shouted  deafening  orders,  and  the  men  got  from  one  bank 
to  the  other,  moving  with  great  caution  but  not  awkwardly.  After 
the  loads  were  over,  the  little  flock  had  to  be  transported,  each  goat 
riding  on  the  shoulders  of  a  coolie,  carried  in  a  sort  of  sling.  It  looked 
odd  enough  to  see  the  goat's  head  with  its  curling  horns  rising  like  a 
helmet  over  the  head  of  the  coolie.  Most  of  the  animals  let  themselves 
be  carried  quite  docilely,  but  a  few  bleated  and  wriggled  with  fear. 

The  usual  summer  route  runs  from  the  bridge  to  a  pass  in  the 
Laskam  spur,  which  forms  the  right  side  of  the  valley,  12,730  feet  high, 
and  descends  thence  directly  to  Korophon.  But  our  Balti  guides  took 
us  along  the  slope  of  the  spur  to  its  end,  where  it  falls  vertically  to  the 


Bridge  over  tlie  Punmah 


rii;mno4  oflJ  idvo  o^^biiH 


The  Ketuni  to  Sriiiagar. 


331 


river.  Here  we  had  a  most  diverting  climb  up  and  down  steep 
cheminees,  at  some  points  of  which  stone  slabs  had  been  set  in  Mke  steps, 
or  crossing  steep  smooth  rocks.  The  coolies  took  these  much  better 
than  we  did,  thanks  to  their  pabboos.  We  rounded  the  end  of  the  spur 
about  700  feet  above  the  river,  and  descended  on  the  other  side  over 
broken  schists  scattered  with  garnets  down  to  the  flat  valley  bottom, 
where  the  great  boulder  stands  that  marks  the  stage  of  Korophon.     It 


BRIDGE  OVER  THE  BRALDOH  AT  ASKOLEY. 


was  now  noon,  and  we  made  our  camp,  though  hardly  more  than  a 
mile  and  a  half  beyond  the  opening  of  the  Punmah  valley,  on  the  other 
side  of  which  we  had  stopped  the  day  before.  In  the  afternoon  we  had 
a  severe  rainstorm,  which  confined  us  to  our  tents  for  several  hours,  the 
coolies  meanwhile  huddling  in  the  lee  of  the  great  boulder.  The  full 
tide  marking  the  daily  period  of  maximum  melting  on  the  glaciers 
reached  us  between  seven  and  eight  o'clock,  unexpected  and  severe,  like 
a  heavy  flood.  The  river  was  at  least  twice  its  former  volume,  though 
we  had  not  had  a  ray  of  sun  for  two  days.  Next  day  we  were  soon  at 
the  Biafo  glacier,  which  gave  us  a  couple  of  hours  of  marching  very 
like  that  on  the  Baltoro.     We  found  the  Braldoh  vallcv  covered  witli 


332 


Chapter  XVIIT. 


bushes.  The  snow  h<ul  quite  disappeared  from  the  sides,  and  every 
little  nook  on  the  high  slopes  was  rich  in  pasturage  for  the  ibexes.  We 
went  along  the  alluvial  terrace,  which  was  strewn  with  blocks  from  the 
rocky  walls  above.  All  the  dignitaries  of  Askoley  had  come  out  a 
half-hour's  journey  from  the  village  to  greet  the  Duke,  and  the  long 
way  was  lined  with  bowing  and  saluting  natives.  At  a  little  before 
eleven  we  were  once  more  ensconced  in  our  old  camping  ground  among 
the  willows. 


LEFT  BANK  OP  THE  BRALDOH,  AT  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  SKORO  LA. 

At  Askoley  we  left  the  Brakloh  valley,  and  instead  of  making  the 
long  detour  around  the  chain  of  Mango  Gusor,  we  crossed  the  Skoro  La 
and  went  straight  down  to  the  Shigar  valley.  This  saved  us  three  days, 
but  at  the  expense  of  considerable  fatigue.  The  Skoro  La  is 
16,716  feet  high,  6,700  feet  above  Askoley.^  The  Duke  and  the  guides 
were  still  imperfectly  recovered   from  their  exertioixs  on  Bride  Peak, 


1  Altitude  calculated  from  barometric  readings,  referred  to  the  observations  made  at  Skardu, 
Gilgit  and  Leh.  According  to  Conway  the  Skoro  La  is  17,400  feet ;  according  to  the  Workinans 
16,975  feet.     Guillarraod  gives  the  highest  figure,  17,716  feet. 


The  Return  to  Srinagar. 


333 


perhaps  also  feeling  some  effects  of  the  sudden  change  from  lower  to 
higher  atmospheric  pressure.  But  the  Duke  was  unwilhng  to  alter  the 
itinerary  already  made,  and  thus  we  did  not  even  stop  for  a  day  of  rest 
at  Askoley.  On  the  afternoon  of  our  arrival  the  equipment  was  made 
ready,  with  addition  of  the  goods  we  had  stored  with  the  Zaildar  on 
our  way  up,  and  w^e  sent  ahead  a  good  proportion  of  the  coolies  to  cross 
the  same  day  the  jhula  bridge  over  the  Braldoh.     The  loads  being  ready 


CAMP   BETWEEN   ASKOLEY    AND    SKORO    Ui.. 


for  distribution,  there  ensued  an  indescribable  scene,  more  than  a  hundred 
cooUes  flinging  themselves  on  the  chests,  bags,  kiltas,  etc.,  wrenching 
things  away  from  each  other  hke  men  possessed,  until  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  we  restored  order  and  made  the  distribution.  The  day,  Hke 
the  foregoing  ones,  was  gloomy,  rainy  and  cold — in  fact,  during  the 
week  since  we  had  left  Bride  Peak  we  had  seen  no  reason  to  regret  our 
departure. 

At  half-past  six  on  the  28th  we  left  Askoley,  under  a  smihng  sky 
and  with  a  springhke  atmosphere.  We  descended  the  great  allm-ial 
terrace,  more  than  300  feet  above  the  river,  by  means  of  a  path  winding 


334 


Chapter  XVIII. 


between  fields  of  grain,  beans,  peas,  etc.  At  the  edge  of  the  terrace 
a  gully  led  directly  down  to  the  bridge.  It  is  about  300  feet  long  and 
more  than  100  feet  above  the  foaming  torrent  coursing  at  the  bottom 
of  the  narrow  gorge  between  two  vertical  rock  walls.  The  bridge  was 
firm  and  in  excellent  condition,  not  a  single  cross-bar  being  lacking. 
Ten  loaded  coolies  could  cross  it  at  a  time,  and  our  caravan,  decreased 
by  the  number  sent  on  the  day  before,  were  very  shortly  on  the  other 
Ijank.     This     also     was     covered     with     vegetation.     Edelweiss     were 


^  v^*. 


ox   THE   WAY   TO   SKORO    LA. 


plentiful  on  the  borders  of  the  fields  and  even  between  the  rows  of  grain, 
a  botanical  combination  entirely  new  to  us.  We  went  a  short  distance 
along  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  then  climbed  obliquely  across  the  slope 
to  the  edge  of  the  opening  of  the  Skoro  La  valley,  1,900  feet  above  the 
Braldoh.^  At  its  mouth  is  a  village  of  mountain  huts,  now  deserted, 
because  the  herds  have  all  been  taken  up  to  the  high  pastures. 
Southward  opened  the  green  valley,  full  of  blossom,  between  two 
rounded    grassy   heights,    like   the   beautiful   shell-shaped   dales   of  our 


1  The  route  is  marked  by  a  dotted  line  on  the  little  panorama  of  the  left  side  of  the  Braldoh 
valley. 


The  Return  to  8nna<i;ir. 


335 


own  Alps.i  AVe  climbed  along  the  left  side  of  this  valley  for  some 
four  miles,  and  set  ujj  camp  on  a  grassy  level  near  the  water.  We  were 
now  at  about  13,000  feet  of  altitude. 

Next  day  we  crossed  the  pass.  A  glacier  comes  down  from  it  to 
within  about  300  feet  from  our  camp  of  the  night  before.  We  went 
first  along  the  slope  on  the  left,  crossing  remains  of  avalanches  and 
detritus  of  landslides  cut  by  torrents.     Then  we  crossed  the   marginal 


NORTHERX   SLOPE    OF    SKORO    LA. 


moraine  and  walked  on  the  ice.  A  series  of  moderate  slopes  brought 
us  to  the  snow-covered  tributary  which  leads  to  the  pass,  where  we 
left  the  main  glacier.  The  latter  runs  off  eastward  to  a  great 
amphitheatre  surrounded  by  rocky  and  snowy  summits.  Dr.  and  Mrs. 
Workman  climbed  in  1899  the  two  peaks  nearest  the  Skoro  La, 
18,600  and  18,450  feet  high.  We  mounted  in  zig-zags  over  an  excellent 
path.  The  ice  ended  some  10  yards  below  the  rocky  col,  and  at  half- 
past  ten  we  were  on  the  top,  in  a  narrow  gap  between  two  teeth  of  the 
rugged  crest. 

'  The  Botanical  Appendix,  by  Prof.  Pirotta  and  Dr.  Cortcsi,  contains  a  list  of  the  specimens 
found  in  this  valley. 


3:?(; 


Chapter   Will. 


Mango  Gusor,  though  more  tliaii  3,000  feet  above  lis,  had  lost  all 
its  impressiveness.  The  day  was  fine,  though  the  distant  chains  were 
still  cloud-covered.  Toward  the  south  we  looked  down  a  bare  gorge 
as  far  as  the  Shigar  valley,  beyond  which  hes  the  opening  of  the  Indus 
valley.  Still  farther  on  the  horizon  was  bounded  by  a  misty  chain 
which  forms  the  main  supporting  buttress  of  the  Deosai  table-land. 
We  stopped  to  rest  and  enjoy  the  view,  while  the  coolies  were  still 


LOOKING   NORTH    FROM   SKORO    LA. 


climbing  the  steep  snowy  slope  below  us.  A  few  of  them  were 
exhausted,  and  laid  down  their  loads  on  the  snow  ;  but  their  stouter 
brethren  already  at  the  top  went  back  to  help  them,  and  the  whole 
caravan  was  soon  over  the  pass.  ^ 

A  wide  rock)^  couloir  runs  precipitously  southward  from  the  col, 
covered  with  most  insecure  detritus  loose  upon  the  steep  rocks.  One 
had  to  go  very  carefully  not  to  send  down  an  avalanche  on  the  heads 
of  those  below.  The  coolies  were  very  sure-footed,  walking  cat-like 
and    not    disturbing    a    single    stone ;    otherwise    it  would  have    been 

1  The  Skoro  La  was  crossed  in  1856  by  R.  Sclilagintweit,  by  Godwin  Austen  in  1861,  by 
Conway  in  1892,  by  the  Worknians  in  1899,  and  by  some  of  the  members  of  tlic  Eckenstein- 
Pfannl-CJuillarmod  expedition  in  1902. 


The   Return  to  Srina<>ar. 


:Vd7 


impossible  to  get  safely  down  such  a  wall  with  so  numerous  a  caravan. 
Some  1,600  feet  below  the  col  we  began  to  cut  obhquely  toward  the 
right  to  gain  a  ridge  which  is  the  divisional  line  between  this  secondary 
valley  and  the  Skoro  Lumba.  The  latter  is  filled  in  its  upper  part  by 
two  glaciers,  which  break  off  abruptly  high  up  on  the  walls.  The  slope 
is  grassy,  and  sprinkled  with  flowers  ;  but  it  is  very  steep  and  extended, 
and  cut  by  high  steps  which  make  the  descent  tedious  and  fatiguing. 


SOUTHERN   SIDE   OF    SKORO    LA. 


Along  the  way  we  kept  meeting  with  Baltis  bringing  little  baskets  of 
deUcious  apricots,  cherries,  plums  and  cucumbers,  the  most  acceptable 
gifts  we  could  receive,  after  our  months  of  tinned  foods.  "We  finally 
reached  the  bottom  of  the  deep  and  narrow  valley,  after  having 
descended  in  this  way  some  4,100  feet,  and  made  our  stage  near  a  group 
of  shepherds'  huts,  on  a  grassy  plain  full  of  great  wild  rose  bushes,  now 
in  full  flower  and  smeUing  dehghtful.  Many  herds  were  pastured  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  we  were  abundantly  supphed  with  fresh  milk 
and  also  with  eggs.  We  were  welcomed  to  Baltistan  by  a  violent 
sandstorm,  followed  rather  unexpectedly  by  heavy  rain.  The  coohes 
protected  themselves  as  well  as  they  could  under  the  tarpauhns,  the 
tent-bags  and  all  the  coverings  they  could  get  together. 

(9221)  Y 


338  Chapter  XVIII. 

Our  nearness  to  the  luxuriant  oasis  of  Shigar,  the  paradise  of  Bal- 
tistan,  put  wings  to  our  coolies'  feet.  AN'hen  we  set  off  at  seven  o'clock 
on  July  30th  they  were  nearly  all  under  way.  The  mountains  were 
covered.  The  path  ran  first  among  roses,  junipers  and  thorny  bushes, 
then  climbed  up  on  a  spur  at  the  right  side  of  the  valley.  After  this 
we  descended  once  more  to  the  river,  and  entered  a  narrow  winding 
gorge  between  high  vertical  walls  which  bear  the  marks  of  both  old 
and  recent  landslides.  It  was  here  that  Colonel  Godwin  Austen,  with 
his  whole  caravan,  was  nearly  overtaken  by  a  shwa  in  1861,  two  great 
bursts  of  mud  and  stones  coming  down  with  a  frightful  crash.  The 
Workmans  were  witnesses  to  a  similar  phenomenon  on  this  very  spot, 
probably  resulting  from  a  temporary  obstruction  of  the  torrent  by  a 
landslide  from  the  side  of  the  gorge.  At  certain  points  there  is  scarcely 
room  for  both  the  torrent  and  the  path,  and  there  would  be  no  escajjc 
for  any  one  overtaken  by  one  of  these  mud  streams.  We  emerged  from 
the  gorge  into  a  broader  space,  where  the  valley  met  a  tributary  from 
the  left,  the  Nang  Brok,  coming  from  Mango  Gusor. 

From  here  on  the  valley  broadened  gradually  to  its  mouth,  becoming 
more  and  more  green  and  beautiful.  On  top  of  every  boulder  is  stored 
up  a  great  quantity  of  hay  for  the  winter.  About  two  miles  from  the 
end  we  saw  the  first  ponies,  brought  by  the  Rajah  of  Shigar,  who  came 
to  meet  us  in  person  with  his  brother  and  a  numerous  train.  It  was  a 
pleasure  to  be  once  more  in  the  saddle.  At  every  step  we  met  people 
who  welcomed  the  Wazir  and  our  coolies  with  affectionate  demonstra- 
tiveness.  Joy  reigned,  and  the  sense  of  reunion,  of  perils  overcome 
and  anxiety  reUeved  was  so  infectious,  that  even  we  fell  uiider  its 
influence.  When  we  emerged  into  the  great  Shigar  valley  the  sun  was 
scorching  hot.  The  left  side  of  the  gateway  is  formed  by  a  rock  full 
of  holes  like  a  beehive,  where  innumerable  sparrows  had  their  nests  and 
were  piercing  the  air  with  their  shrill  chatter.  The  valley  looked  quite 
different  from  our  memory  of  it — all  the  rocky  slopes  were  bare,  and 
snow  and  glaciers  only  came  down  to  within  6,000  or  7,000  feet  of  us. 

We  crossed  the  stony  delta  and  reached  the  oasis.  It  seemed  to 
us  like  the  promised  land.  The  boughs  of  the  apricot  trees  were 
weighted  with  luscious  fruit,  and  we  could  fill  our  hands  by  merely 
rising  in  the  saddle.  The  mulberry  trees  were  black  with  their  harvest, 
and  the  fields  were  full  of  ripe  crops,  which  the  natives  were  garnering. 
On  the  roofs  of  the  terraces,  on  the  ground,  on  the  threshing-floors, 


Tlie  Return  to  Srinagar, 


339 


everywhere  great  sheets  of  apiicots  were  laid  out  to  dry,  and  gleamed 
like  cloth  of  gold  in  the  sunshine.  The  old  Chinese  geographers  were 
right  when  they  called  Baltistan  "  Tibet  of  the  apricots  "  (Ujfalvy). 
We  dismounted  at  the  bridge  outside  of  Shigar,  and  entered  the  town 
on  foot.  In  front  of  one  of  the  houses,  probably  the  school,  some  fifty 
children  were  drawn  up,  and  prompted  by  their  master  greeted  us  with 
three  shrill  hurrahs.  The  tents  were  erected  in  the  cool  shade  of  the 
venerable  trees  beside  the  polo  camp,  and  the  customary  offerings  of 
fruit,  flowers  and  cakes  were  soon  brought  to  us  in  al)undance. 


THE  APKILOT  CKOI"  AT  SKARDf. 


The  Wazir  gave  an  afternoon  tea  to  the  expedition  in  the  garden 
of  his  house,  a  great  tent  having  been  set  up  and  a  profusion  of  Oriental 
rugs  stretched  on  the  grass.  He  and  the  Rajah  proffered  various  gifts 
to  the  Duke.  It  is  usual  to  accept  some  of  these,  and  to  recognize  the 
hospitality  and  the  assistance  rendered  by  the  authorities  of  the  district 
by  sending  them  offerings  in  return  through  the  official  channels. 

Between  Shigar  and  Skardu  we  had  the  experience  of  a  very 
interesting  mode  of  conveyance,  common  to  all  the  western  Himalaya 
— the  navigation  of  the  river  on  zhaks.  AVe  had  some  of  us  already 
used  them  to  cross  the  Braldoh  where  it  flows  into  the  Shigar  valley, 

(0221)  Y  2 


340 


Chapter  XVI II. 


but  that  was  nothing  compared  to  the  actual  voyage  in  them  upon  a 
swift  and  turbulent  stream.  We  sent  on  the  coolies  by  land  with  the 
guides  and  the  luggage.  Then  we  betook  ourselves  across  the  fields 
to  the  river  bank,  jDcrhaps  a  mile  from  the  village.  Three  rafts  were  in 
readiness  for  us.  They  looked  hke  very  fr-agile  structures  to  contend 
with  the  violent  stream,  which  runs  a  muddy  and  swollen  course  with 
billows  that  break  and  curl  over  at  the  top.  Each  zhak  is  made  of 
twenty  pig  or  goat  skins  filled  with  air  and  secured  by  ropes  to  a  lattice- 
work of  poplar  or  wiUow  branches,  with  the  legs  sticking  up  between, 


A    ZHAK,    TTJRN^ED    OVKE   ON   THE   BANK. 

tied  tightly  with  cord  to  keep  the  air  in.^  We  bestowed  ourselves  in 
pairs  upon  these  primitive  floats — the  Duke  and  Mr.  Baines,  Negrotto 
and  I,  Sella  and  Botta.  Sella  tied  a  box  to  the  wooden  framework  of 
the  raft,  on  which  he  put  the  cinematographic  camera,  in  order  to  take 
a  record  of  this  novel  kind  of  travel.  We  sat  cross-legged  in  the  centre 
of  the  rafts.  It  was  practically  sitting  in  the  water,  except  for  some 
old  pieces  of  felt  (namdah)  laid  down  on  the  lattice-work,  for  our  weight 
made  the  rafts  ride  low  in  the  water.  At  the  corners  four  steersmen 
stood  erect,  with  long  poles  to  serve  as  oars. 

Directly  we  pushed  off  we  were  seized  by  the  current  and  given  over 
to  the  mercy  of  the  waves,  veering  now  toward  one  bank,  now  the  other, 

1  Moorcroft  describes  similar  rafts  in  use  on  the  river  Sutlcj,  made  of  ox-hides,  like  those 
which  Major  Bruce  says  are  used  to  navigate  tlie  Indus  in  Chitral.  They  are  probably  much 
larger,  but  cannot  be  nearly  so  easy  to  take  apart  for  portage  as  these  of  Baltistan. 


>^.. --'       "  '  ''^■^-^^"^•^■^'^■-r:*•?*^:^.":• 


i?>l^ 


West  side  of  the  Shigar  Valley  from  near  Alchori 


From  the  Skoro  La,  looking  West 


riie  Iit'turn  to  Srinajiar. 


341 


tossed  about  like  corks,  whirled  in  the  eddies,  lifted  one  moment  on 
the  back  of  a  wave  to  a  dizzy  incKnatiou  and  the  next  plunged  into  a 
valley  with  the  nose  of  the  raft  under  water  for  an  instant  before  it 
rose  on  the  crest  of  a  fresh  billow.  The  waves  repelled  by  the  front 
of  the  boat  and  the  breakers  which  followed  us  behind  raised  up  great 
sheets  of  water,  which  slapped  and  battered  at  us  on  every  side.  The 
four  rowers  used  their  poles  frantically  the  whole  time,  but  apparently 


BOARDIXO   THK    ZHAKS. 


exerted  very  httle,  if  any,  influence  over  the  course  of  the  zhak.  Every 
now  and  then  one  of  them  leaned  over  and  untied  the  string  of  a  skin 
that  had  collapsed  a  httle,  blew  it  up  again  and  resumed  his  post.  Our 
three  barks  had  pushed  ofi  at  practically  the  same  time,  but  in  half 
an  hour  they  were  widely  separated.  Sometimes  one  of  them  would 
escape  altogether  from  the  control  of  the  steersmen  and  make  for  some 
branch  of  the  river,  but  fortunately  these  all  intercommunicated, 
so  it  would  soon  get  back  into  the  main  stream  again.  The  river  banks 
seemed  to  fly  past  us,  our  course  was  so  rapid.  Thus  we  followed  the  wide 
bend  of  the  river  round  the  promontory  of  Strongdokmo.  Near  the 
mouth  the  oarsmen  were  obhged  to  get  out  and  help  the  rafts  over  the 
sandbanks,  as  they  scraped  on  the  bottom  with  an  unpleasant  grating. 

(9221)  Y  3 


542 


Cluipter  XVIII. 


We  came  out  finally  into  the  Indus,  and  made  for  its  bank  at  about 
a  mile  below  the  rock  of  Skardu.  In  an  hour  and  a  half  we  had  come 
down  some  12  miles  of  river,  not  counting  the  idiosyncrasies  of  our 
course  due  to  the  current,  a  distance  which  it  had  taken  us  five  hours  to 
march,  on  the  way  up. 

The   Rajah  of  Skardu  and  his  retinue  received  the  Duke  at  the 
landing-place.     Near  by,  beneath  groat  poplar  trees,  a  table  was  laid 


ox    THE    SHKJAR. 


in  European  fashion  with  seats,  plates,  cups,  etc.,  and  spread  with 
beautiful  fruit,  cakes  and  tea  in  pots.  Here  we  breakfasted,  carrying 
on  a  conversation  the  while,  with  Mr.  Baines  as  interpreter.  Afterwards 
we  entered  the  city.  The  Duke  went  at  once  to  the  meteorological 
station  to  get  the  readings  for  July  18th,  necessary  to  make  an 
approximate  calculation  of  the  height  reached  on  Bride  Peak  ;  while 
the  rest  of  us,  restored  to  the  blessing  of  the  telegraph  wire,  sent  off 
dispatches. 


riie   Return   to  Sriiuiirar.  343 


fc 


We  were  lodged  in  our  former  quarters,  in  the  bungalow  of  the  ^^till 
absent  civil  engineer.  The  guides  and  coolies  arrived  a  few  hours  after 
us,  and  we  worked  to  prepare  everything  for  the  final  stages  of  the 
journey.  We  paid  ofE  all  the  coolies  and  said  good-bye  to  our  sturdy 
and  faithful  servants  of  the  late  campaign.  For  the  last  time  all  the 
pieces  of  luggage  were  counted  and  sorted,  evening  falling  while  we 
were  still  engaged  in  the  task.  Administrative  complications  lasted 
late  into  the  night,  Mr.  Baines  wrestling  with  the  greed  of  the  Skardu 
merchants  who  had  supplied  us  with  flour,  sacks  to  put  it  in,  pabboos 
and  other  articles,  and  who,  with  their  Oriental  methods  of  temporizing 
and  sophistry,  prolonged  the  bargaining  interminably.  However,  we 
were  ready  for  the  start  next  day. 

As  before  stated,  our  return  route  was  to  be  the  sunmier  one  across 
the   Deosai  table-land,  a  decided  short  cut  to  Kashmir,  in  comparison 
with  the  Indus  valley  route.     It  is  a  very  high  region,  with  several 
passes  to  be  surmounted,  and  thus  is  open  to  caravans  for  only  a  little 
over  two  months  in  the  year,  from  July  to  the  middle  of  September.     A 
large  part  of  the  march,  lies  through  absolutely  desert  regions,  where 
not  a  twig  of  wood  is  to  be  found,  and  fuel  and  provisions  for  several 
davs    must    accoidinglv    be    carried.     We    were    delaved    bv    the    local 
purveyors  of  suppUes  so  as  not  to  be  able  to  set  out  until  half-past 
eight.      The    road   out   of  Skardu  lies  through  the  squaUd  bazar,   on 
leaving   which    we    entered    upon    the    wide    stony   plain,    crossing    it 
diagonally  toward  the  south-west  and  fording  various  branches  of  the 
Sutpa  river,  which  flows  out  of  a  valley  south  of  the  city.     Beyond  the 
river  a  long  avenue  of  willows  leads  to  the  narrow  entrance  of  the  Burgi 
La  valley.     When  Vigne  was  here  the  opening  was  still  barricaded  by 
a  wall  erected  by  Ahmed  Shah,  perhaps  afterwards  swept  away  by  a 
flood.     The  valley  is  steep,   bald  and  stony  at   first.     Farther  up  it 
becomes  green  with  grass  and  bushes,  owing  to  the  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere   at   a   certain  height   above   the   Indus.     The  stage  called 
Pindoba  lies  about  half-way  up  (11,211  feet  high),  and  3,708  feet  above 
Skardu,  on  a  sort  of  terrace  rising  in  the  centre  of  the  gorge.       The 
great    spurs    of    the    Indus    valley    and    the    Skoro    La     chain    form 
a  striking  landscape  of  mountains  framed  by  the  walls  of  the  valley. 
At    this     point     the     Wazir     of     Shigar     took     leave    of    us,    having 
followed    the    expedition    from    Tolti    onwards.       The    time    of    the 
campaign    upon    the    glaciers    he    spent    at    Rdokass,  placing  at   the 

(9221)  V  4 


344  Chapter  XVIII. 

service  of  the  Duke  the  authority  and  control  wliich  he  possessed  over 
the  cooHes. 

Above  Pindobal  the  valley  grew  wider  and  less  steep.  The  horses, 
however,  having  been  poorly  fed,  did  not  take  the  climb  well.  There 
were  several  mares  among  them,  followed  by  their  colts,  and  the  poor 
little  things  were  taxed  much  beyond  their  feeble  powers.  The  valley 
now  grew  stony  again  and  full  of  detritus  as  far  up  as  the  snows 
descending  from  the  col.  The  path  crossed  the  snow  for  a  good  distance, 
and  the  ponies  jjlunged  in  and  stumbled  along,  but  went  bravely,  their 
drivers  using  no  force,  but  encouraging  them  with  the  voice.  A  little 
after  ten  we  set  foot  on  Burgi  La,  15,847  feet  high.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  climb  certain  peaks  and  heights  were  detaching  themselves 
and  standing  out  from  the  chains  on  the  north-eastern  horizon,  which 
gave  us  the  hope  of  a  farewell  glimpse  of  the  noble  mountains  among 
which  we  had  speiit  such  never-to-be-forgotten  weeks.  And  our  wish 
was  granted.  From  the  top  of  the  pass  we  recognized  at  once  the 
regular  cone  and  great  snowy  shoulder  of  K-,  rising  superb  above  the 
other  heights.  The  sky  was  cloudy,  and  we  could  just  distinguish 
through  the  mists  to  the  right  of  K-  a  dim  shape,  which  we  knew  to  be 
the  rocky  pinnacle  of  Masherbrum.  Sella's  paiiorama  R  shows  the 
extended  view  to  be  had  from  Burgi  La.  Sella  perceived  that  a  pano- 
rama taken  by  telephotography  on  a  bright  morning  from  some  height 
near  the  pass  would  give  an  incomparable  view  of  the  whole  system 
of  the  Karakoram  ;  and,  unable  to  resist  the  idea,  he  remained  behind 
for  one  night  with  Botta,  keeping  one  of  the  Whymper  tents  and  horses 
with  which  to  overtake  us  on  the  next  day. 

A  short  descent  leads  from  Burgi  La  to  a  placid  green  vale,  open  and 
rounded  in  shape,  with  two  little  blue  lakes  fed  by  the  near  snows,  one 
some  650  feet  below  the  col.  Beyond  this  valley  we  caught  a  glimpse 
of  the  rolling  plains  of  Deosai.  We  came  down  through  the  nearly  level 
basin,  all  tapestried  with  a  profusion  of  gaily-coloured  blossoms.  ^  The 
great  extent  of  luxuriant  herbage  caused  us  to  feel  surprised  that  there 
was  no  herd  to  profit  by  the  excellent  pasturage.  Where  the  valley  runs 
into  the  plain  is  the  stage  of  Ali  Malik  ke-mur,  marked  by  some 
prominent  rocks,  out  of  which  the  natives  have  made  huts  by  the 
addition  of  some  rough  stone  walls.     The  stage  is  13,450  feet  high.     The 

'  The  Botanical  Appendix  of  Prof.  Pirotta  and  Dr.  Cortesi  contains  a  list  of  the  plants 
collected  on  the  Deosai  table-land. 


The  Ileluni  to  Sriiiagnr. 


345 


clouds  had  been  gathering  over  the  chains,  and  a  little  after  we  reached 
the  spot  a  furious  raijistorm  broke,  accompanied  by  thunder  and 
lightning,  a  spectacle  to  which  we  had  long  been  strangers. 

The  undulating  plain  of  Deosai  is  irregularly  circular  in  form,  some- 
what more  than  30  miles  hi  diameter,  and  from  13,000  to  14.000  feet 
above  sea  level.  It  is  girdled  by  mountains  averaging  about  17,500  feet 
with  small  glaciers  and  snowfields.  Shallow  valleys  run  into  it,  making 
a  sort  of  shell-shaped  expanse.  Oestreich  has  called  attention  to  the 
singular  contrast  between  the  flat  monotonous  plain  and  the  strongly 
marked  features  of  the  surrounding  region,  all  angles  and  corners,  cut 


THE    DEOSAI   T.\BLE-LAND. 


and  broken  by  deep  valleys  between  steep  walls  and  ragged  crests. 
Drew  offered  the  hypothesis  that  the  plain  might  have  originated  in  a 
filling  up  of  the  valleys  with  alluvial  sediment  during  the  glacial  period. 
Conway  seems  to  think  that  the  process  is  still  going  on,  largely  through 
the  medium  of  the  mud  streams.  It  may  be  that  such  a  theory  fits 
the  conditions  of  the  plateaus  of  Central  Asia  and  Tibet,  which  are,  in 
fact,  composed  of  sedimentary  matter.  But  the  Deosai  plam  is  a  solid 
formation  of  granite  and  gneiss,  as  Vigne  recognized.  K.  Oestreich 
and  Ellsworth  Huntingdon  described  it  as  an  upheaval  not  yet  shaped 
or  furrowed  by  the  action  of  water.  ^  It  is  full  of  glacier  marks  and 
deposits,  and  must  once  have  been  entirely  covered  by  a  large  glacier 
of  the  continental  type. 

The  route  crosses  the  plain  in  an  absolutely  straight  line  from  north- 
east to  south-west,  traversing  a  number  of  broad  streams.     These  were 

'  K.  Oestreich  (op.  cit.)  ,•  Eli.sworti!  Huntingdon,  The  Vale  of  Kashmir.     Bull.  Anter. 
Qeog.  Soc.  38,  1900.  p.  057. 


346 


(Miaptor  XVI II. 


clear  and  shallow  with  pebbly  beds,  ruiming  between  low  bank.s  and 
uniting  in  the  centre  of  the  plain  to  form  the  Shigar  river,  the  only 
emissary  of  the  Deosai  plain,  and  a  tributary  to  the  Dras  river.  It  is 
said  to  be  full  of  trout.  There  are  many  clear  cold  springs  along  its 
way.  The  soil  is  covered  with  stones  and  pebbles,  grass  growing 
profusely  among  them.  It  seemed  to  us  like  a  beautiful  meadow,  after 
our  months  in  arid  Baltistan.     However,  we  passed  some  Englishmen 


DTK    (AMI'   OX    THE    BOItDEHS   OV    THK    DKOSM    I'l.MN. 


coming  from  Kashmir,  and  to  them,  as  to  Ujfalvy,  it  was  a  perfect  desert 
of  stones.  The  path  is  broad  and  hard  ;  for  the  route  over  the  Deosai 
plain,  while  it  is  not  the  official  highway  used  by  the  post,  is  traversed 
during  the  summer  by  a  considerable  part  of  the  traffic  between  Srinagar 
and  Skardu,  and  all  the  Englishmen  take  it  who  are  bound  oi\  hunting 
expeditions  in  Baltistan.  Marmots  are  numerous,  and  the  earth  along 
the  roadside  is  perforated  with  their  burrows.  The  little  animals  are 
larger  than  with  us,  and  have  pelts  of  about  the  same  colour,  tawny 
brown  shading  to  yellow  on  the  belly.  On  every  side  we  kept  hearing 
their  shrill  frightened  squeak.  The  pasture  lands  of  the  Deosai  are  said 
to  harbour  a  good  many  bears.  Birds  are  scarce,  likewise  insects.  Wp 
saw  no  crickets,  bees  or  wasps,  and  but  few  butterflies,  despite  the  rich 
grass  and  many  blossoms.  The  species  of  the  latter  were  in  no  way 
striking.     There  is  a  certain  sort  of  gnat  native  to  these  parts,  of  very 


Tlie  Ketuni   fo  Srina<iiir. 


347 


bad  fame,  said  to  be  most  annoying  during  the  warm  part  of  the  day.. 
We,  however,  were  not  troubled  by  it,  and  found  the  horseflies  much 
more  vexatious.     Spiders  were  plentiful. 

Sella  overtook  us  at  our  second  stage,  not  far  from  the  western  limit 
of  the  plateau.  As  we  had  feared,  he  was  prevented  by  mists  and  bad' 
weather  from  completing  his  photographic  campaign  in  the  Karakoram 
with  a  panorama  which  would  have  had  greater  illustrative  value  than 
any  taken  in  the  chains  themselves.  The  disapjjointment  was  the  more 
lamentable  when   the  next  day  proved  absolutely  clear  and   brilliant, 


SARSDJCIAR   LAKE. 


without  a  vestige  of  mist.  To  the  west  of  us,  back  of  the  mountains 
bounding  the  plain,  we  saw  far  off  the  snowy  peak  of  Nanga  Parbat. 
This  was  our  only  glimpse  of  it. 

Leaving  the  Deosai  plain,  we  ascended  the  gentle  valley  which  leads 
up  to  the  col  called  Sarsingar,  14,042  feet  high.  Near  it  we  passed  a 
moraine  lake,  then  on  the  summit  of  the  col  a  second  and  larger  one, 
which  Drew  and  Workman  consider  to  be  likewise  of  morenic  origin  ; 
but  Oestreich  calls  it  a  watershed  lake.  The  downward  slopes  were  quite 
gentle,  and  had  patches  of  snow  coming  down  from  heights  that  looked 
very  moderate,  but  are  really  16,000  feet  or  more.  According  to 
Oestreich  the  great  glacier  of  Deosai  must  have  come  down  over  this- 
col,  but  it  probably  had  more  than  one  outlet. 


348 


Chapter  XVIII. 


The  head  of  another  large  valley,  like  a  wide  amphitheatre,  called 
Chota  Deosai,  comes  in  between  the  real  Deosai  and  the  Burzil  valley, 
thi-ouprh  which  we  were  to  march.  This  amphitheatre  is  the  source  of 
the  Shiiigo  river,  which  runs  into  the  Shigar  farther  down,  thus  con- 
tributing its  volume  of  water  to  the  Dras.  We  went  down  into  the 
amphitheatre  from  Sarsingar,  and  found  it  clothed  with  rich  pasture 
but  entirely  unoccupied.  One  crosses  over  it  to  gain  a  narrow  defile 
which  cuts  between  the  mountains  to  the  south,  and  by  which  one  gains 
a  second  pass,  the  Stakpi  La.  600  feet  lower  than  Sarsingar. 


PATH    TO    STAKl'l    LA. 


The  Naib  Tehsildar  of  the  district  came  to  meet  the  Duke  with  a 
party  of  dignitaries,  and  they  escorted  us  down  from  the  col  and  into  the 
Burzil  valley.  Now  we  began  to  see  the  forests — the  birches  highest 
up,  and  below  them  the  deep  green  masses  of  the  coniferous  trees.  The 
path  ran  among  a  tangle  of  flowers,  a  hundred  kinds  all  familiar,  yet 
seeming  strange  on  account  of  their  size — campanulas  of  every  variety, 
fragrant  forget-me-nots  three  or  four  feet  high  with  long  branches, 
marsh-mallows,  larkspur,  balsam,  thistles — all  these  and  many  more 
growing  with  splendour  and  profusion  and  a  riot  of  colour. 

At  Burzil  we  were  quartered  in  a  bungalow  that  seemed  like  a  palace 
to  us.  The  high  road  from  Gilgit  wound  down  before  us,  a  splendid 
smooth  and  well-trodden  jiath. 


The  Return  to  Srinag-ar.  349 

We  had  said  good-bye  to  the  rough  paths,  the  long  marches  and 
the  healthy  fatigue  of  our  mountain  heights.  The  remainder  of  the 
journey  was  only  too  easy.  Between  flowering  hedges  we  descended 
the  Burzil  valley  to  where  it  joins  the  Kishen  Ganga.  We  noted  the 
gradual  giving  way  of  summer  to  autumnal  flora — the  slopes  were 
covered  with  asters,  and  the  umbelliferous  plants,  as  large  as  small  trees, 
were  full  of  seed-vessels.  The  path  follows  the  right  side  of  the  valley. 
The  left  is  clothed  with  evergreen  forests,  populated  with  black  and  brown 
bears.  Cultivation  begins  a  little  before  the  Kishen  Ganga — the  same 
river  which  we  saw  at  its  meeting  with  the  Jhelum,  on  our  way  from 
Rawal  Pindi  to  Srinagar.  The  dwelling-houses  here  are  built  of  tree 
trunks  mortised  together,  and  look  like  Swiss  chalets  except  that  they 
have  flat  terrace  roofs  instead  of  projecting  gable  ones.  We  had  become 
so  used  to  the  small  cattle  of  Baltistan  that  the  herds  here  impressed  us 
as  being  of  gigantic  size.  The  women  in  the  fields  were  unveiled,  and 
looked  at  us  without  embarrassment.  The  men  are  tall  and  well  built 
— they  are  Dards,  an  Aryan  people  which  inhabits  the  country  between 
Kashmir  and  the  Hindu  Kush.  They  appear  to  have  occupied  this 
region  since  remote  antiquity  (Stein).  They  are  mainly  Suimite 
Mohammedans,  but  there  are  a  few  Shiites  and  Ishmaelites  as  well. 

There  was  a  great  deal  of  traffic  on  the  road,  long  convoys  of  pack 
animals  loaded  with  merchandise.  We  also  met  some  detachments  of 
well-equipped  native  troops,  going  to  exchange  with  the  garrison  of  the 
frontier  post.  In  spring  and  winter,  however,  the  route  is,  perhaps, 
even  more  dangerous  than  Zoji  La,  and  there  are  many  victims  of 
avalanches. 

We  followed  the  Kishen  Ganga  for  a  space,  and  then  pursued  a 
tributary  valley  on  the  left,  which  took  us  up  to  our  last  pass,  Rajdiangan 
or  Tragbal,  11,562  feet  high,  a  little  more  than  Zoji  La.  On  its  right 
side  is  a  trigonometrical  station  (11,950  feet),  which  must  command 
an  extended  view  of  the  mountains,  among  them  the  group  of  Nanga 
Parbat.  It  was  too  veiled  in  clouds  for  us  to  see  it — not  an  unusual 
experience,  apparently,  for  Sir  Francis  Younghusband  crossed 
Rajdiangan  six  times  and  never  had  a  view  of  it.  The  spreading  plain  of 
Kashmii'  was  at  our  feet,  shrouded  in  light  mists,  among  which  gleamed 
the  waters  of  its  rivers,  lakes  and  canals.  We  came  down  to  Bandipur, 
our  route  being  a  progress  through  groves  of  pine  and  fir,  meadows  and 
plains,  rice  fields  and  rows  of  mulberry  trees.     The  air  quivered  with 


-350 


Chapter  Will. 


heat,  and  was  filled  with  the  hum  of  cicalas  and  crickets,  and  the  voices 
of  many  birds.  On  the  shores  of  the  Wular  were  waiting  the  Govern- 
ment houseboats  sent  to  meet  the  expedition,  the  members  of  which 
from  now  on  were  the  guests  of  the  Maharajah,  Sir  Pratab  Singh.  We 
were  once  more  in  the  heart  of  Kashmir — noisy,  garrulous,  l)ombastic, 
rservile,  yet  withal  charming  Kashmir. 


ox    THE   JHELIM.       THE   RETLRX    TO    SRlS.VO.\R. 


Our  exertions  were  over.  We  let  ourselves  be  borne  across  the  lake 
and  up  the  Jhelum,  lazily  enjoying  the  landscape,  the  tall  vegetation  on 
the  banks,  the  branching  splendour  of  the  chenar  trees,  the  lively 
colouring  of  the  water-fowl — the  little  grey  gulls,  the  gay  kingfishers, 
the  fish-hawks  perched  watchfully  on  the  rocks  or  floating  tree  trunks, 
the  ducks,  the  cranes  and  all  the  varied  host  of  aquatic  birds. 

On  August  11th  the  party  re-entered  Srinagar,  and  went  to  pay  its 
respects  at  the  Chenar  Bagh.  The  expedition  was  at  an  end.  All  the 
anticipatory  feelings  of  the  past  few  days  and  the  satisfying  sense  of 
labours  completed  gave  way  to  a  sense  of  flatness  accompanied  by  actual 
longing  for  the  vigorous  and  varied  life  of  the  past  months  of  contact 
with  nature. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES    AND    CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  Explorations  of  Sir  Francis  Younghushand  cast  of  the  Baltoro.  —  Hciglit  of  the  Peaks  of 
Golden  Throne.  —  Method  employed  in  Determining  Heights.  —  Discrepancy  between  the 
Barometric  and  Trigonometric  Calculation-s. —  Climate  of  the  Karakoram.  —  Solar 
Temperature.  —  Observations  made  by  the  \\'orkraans  and  by  the  Duke.  —  Temperature 
of  the  Air  at  Great  Heights.  —  Physiological  Experiment.s.  —  Deductions  for  the  Mountain 
Climber.  —  Analysis  of  Results.  —  Phy.siological  Effects  of  Altitude. —  Limits  of  Adapta- 
bility and  Endurance. —  Rations  and  Alpine  Outfit.  —  Optimistic  Korecast.s.  —  The 
Practical  Problem. 


I  HAVE  gathered  into  a  single 
chapter  a  numbei'  of  short  notes 
on  various  topics  which  have 
already  been  presented  or,  at 
least,  mentioned  in  the  text, 
discussion  of  which,  on  account 
of  their  technical  nature,  was 
not  easily  included  in  the 
general  narrative. 

As  described  in  Chapter  XV, 
the  Duke  had  from  Sella  Pass 
and  the  ridge  of  Staircase  Peak 
a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
unknown  territory  lying  east 
of  the  Baltoro  and  north  of  the  Siachen.  Over  this  tract  extends  a 
system  of  lofty  chains,  with  corresponding  deep  valleys  (see  panoramas 
F  and  I),  so  complicated  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  Duke  to 
form  a  general  idea  of  its  topographical  arrangement,  even  schematically, 
or  to  draw  such  conclusions  as  would  be  necessary  to  correlate  his 
observations  with  those  of  Sir  Francis  Younghushand,  the  only  explorer 
who  has  so  far  penetrated  into  the  region. 


352  Chapter  XIX. 

The  geographical  problem  will  be  best  presented  by  confronting  the 
Duke's  observations  and  the  results  of  the  Younghusband  expedition. 
I  will  therefore  present  these  data  as  briefly  as  possible,  premising  them 
with  the  warning  that  they  will  not  be  easily  intelligible  without  reference 
to  Younghusband's  maps.  ^ 

On  his  first  expedition  in  1887  Sir  Francis  Younghusband  crossed 
the  whole  of  China  from  Pckhi  to  Yarkand,  and  returned  to  India  by  the 
old  Mustagh  pass  and  the  Baltoro.  It  was  during  this  journey  that  he 
first  discovered  and  crossed  the  Aghil  chain,  which  lies  between  the  Kuen 
Lun  and  the  Karakoram,  separating  the  valleys  of  the  Yarkand  and 
the  Oprang  rivers.-  Two  years  later,  returning  to  the  region  by  the 
Karakoram  pass,  he  again  crossed  the  Aghil  range  at  the  head  of  a  small 
expedition  sent  out  to  get  mformation  upon  the  marauding  raids  of 
the  Kunjuts  of  Hunza.  He  describes  the  Aghil  mountains  as  running 
from  north-west  to  south-east,  some  125  miles  long,  composed  of  "  bold 
upstanding  peaks,"  among  which  are  three  beautiful  snowy  summits, 
the  tallest  of  which  is  about  23,000  feet  high. 

After  reaching  the  valley  of  the  Oprang,  Sir  Francis  Younghusband 
followed  it  up,  hophig  that  it  led  to  the  Saltoro  pass,  a  supposititious 
ancient  route  of  communication  between  Baltistan  -and  Kashgar,  of 
which  the  people  south  of  the  ranges  had  some  tradition  but  no  depend- 
able knowledge  of  its  geographical  situation.  ^ 

The  valley,  which  runs  from  south-east  to  north-west,  lies  east  of  the 
Baltoro  basin  between  the  Broad-Gasherbrum  range  and  the  Aghil 
mountains.  A  large  glacier,  the  Gasherbrum,  comes  down  into  it  from 
the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Gasherbrums,  and  stops  abruptly  at  the  river 
with  a  vertical  wall  of  ice  a  mile  and  a  half  broad.  This  the  explorer 
crossed,  and  went  on  up  the  valley  to  a  second  glacier,  the  Urdok,  not 
so  wide  as  the  first,  which  runs  in  from  the  south  betw^een  precipitous 
walls,  coming  from  deep  within  the  ranges  to  the  east  of  Hidden  Peak.  The 

'  Sir  F.  E.  Younghusband,  The  Hcarl  oj  a  Ooniinent,  etc.  London  1904.  2nd  ed.  There 
are  better  maps  in  the  articles  by  the  same  author  in  Proc.  Boy.  Geog.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  10,  1888, 
p.  485,  and  vol.  14,  1892,  p.  205. 

'  The  Aglul  chain  had  been  seen  by  G.  W.  Haywakd  as  early  as  1868,  but  he  believed  it  to 
be  the  Mustagh  or  Karakoram.  Sec  Journey  from  Leh  to  Yarkarul  and  Kashgar.  Proc.  Roy. 
Geog.  Soc.  14,  1869,  p.  41  ;   and  the  article  in  Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  40,  1870,  p.  33. 

'  The  Saltoro  pass  was  discovered  by  Longstaff  in  the  summer  of  1909,  the  year  of  the  Duke's 
expedition.  It  does  not  cross  the  watershed,  but  gives  access  to  the  Siachen  or  Saichar  glacier ; 
hence  it  is  not  a  way  of  communication  between  India  and  Central  Asia,  but  merely  a  short 
cut  between  the  lower  Shyok  and  the  upper  basin  of  its  tributary,  the  Nubra. 


Supjileinentary  Notes  niul  Considerations.  3o3 

Oprang  valley  ends  not  far  beyond  to  the  south-east,  dividing  into  two 
glacier-filled  branches  which  form  the  sources  of  the  river  Oprang.  At 
this  point  he  left  tlie  main  valley  and  followed  up  the  Urdok  glacier. 
It  was  entirely  covered  with  moraine  in  its  lower  part.  He  went  on 
climbing  toward  a  sort  of  depression  in  the  ridge  at  the  head  of  the 
valley,  thinking  that  this  might  possibly  be  the  sought-for  Saltoro  pass. 
He  went  18  miles  up  the  glacier  in  three  days,  experiencing  continued 
bad  weather,  so  that  he  just  barely  caught  glimpses  of  the  peaks  between 
the  mists.  On  the  third  day  there  was  a  severe  snowstorm.  There  was 
considerable  danger  from  the  snow-covered  crevasses  and  the  avalanches 
that  came  down  on  every  side,  and  he  was  finally  brought  to  a  halt  by 
a  wide  crevasse,  probably  the  bergschrund,  and  forced  to  turn  back. 

Sir  Francis  Younghusband  was  merely  making  a  rapid  journey 
through  an  extended  territory,  and  had  neither  equipment  nor  leisure 
for  accurate  topographical  work  ;  moreover,  there  were  no  points 
previously  established  by  survey  upon  which  to  base  his  observations. 
He  was  able  to  establish  the  latitude  of  some  of  the  points  in  his  itinerary 
by  astronomical  observations,  but  not  the  longitude.  The  camping 
ground  of  Durbin  Jangal  in  the  Oprang  valley,  11 J  miles  below  the 
Gasherbrum  glacier,  was  one  of  these.  Its  position  was  established 
by  calculation  of  the  latitude  and  observation  with  the  compass  upon 
a  certain  striking  peak  which  Younghusband  believed  to  be  K-  (survey 
183°  Mg.,  186°  true).  The  situation  of  the  Oprang  valley  is  thus 
dependent  upon  that  of  Durbin  Jangal  camp.  But  in  Younghusband's 
map  the  valley  is  so  placed  that  one  would  be  able  to  look  from  Windy 
Gap  and  Sella  Pass,  through  short  tributary  valleys  without  glaciers, 
directly  down  into  it  where  it  lies  considerably  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Gasherbrum  glacier.  However,  Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  in  dis- 
cussing with  the  Duke  the  topography  of  the  region  during  the  first 
stay  of  the  expedition  at  Srinagar,  became  persuaded  that  the  peak 
surveyed  from  Durbin  Jangal  was  not  K^  but  Gasherbrum  IV,  and 
altered  his  map  accordingly,  putting  the  Oprang  valley  six  miles  farther 
east.  Then  the  further  difficulty  arose  that  a  straight  line  drawn  fi'om 
the  new  situation  of  Durbin  Jangal  to  Gasherbrum  lY  would  run 
directly  across  the  mountain  ridge  to  the  north-east  of  Windy  Gap,  and 
thus  the  latter  would  probably  cut  off  the  view  of  Gasherbrum  IV  from 
a  person  situated  about  seven  miles  north  of  and  nearly  10,000  feet 
below  it. 

(9251)  2 


354  Chapter  XTX. 

The  Duke  was  forced  by  the  insecurity  of  the  data  to  leave  unsolved 
the  problem  of  the  topographical  relation  between  the  upper  Oprang 
valley  and  the  glacier  basin  explored  by  him.  Nor  were  the  factors 
established  by  the  expedition  enough  to  warrant  the  identification  of 
the  Aghil  chain  with  the  mountain  range  which  the  Duke  had  seen  to 
the  east,  and  which  he  and  Sella  had  photographed.  They  had  both 
taken  with  the  prismatic  compass  the  angles  of  Peaks  X,  Y  and  Z, 
and  the  point  of  observation  of  the  Duke  upon  Staircase  Peak  was 
sufficiently  well  established.  But  that  of  Sella  on  the  east  side  of  the 
left-hand  spur  of  the  Godwin  Austen  was  too  uncertain,  as  he  had  as 
basis  only  the  angles  observed  upon  the  Gasherbrums,  which  were  too 
few  and  also  too  acute.  Given  the  distance  of  these  two  stations  from 
the  points  X,  Y  and  Z,  the  slightest  displacement  would  be  enough 
to  alter  the  situation  of  these  peaks  from  one  to  the  other  side  of  the 
Oprang ;  and  besides,  it  was  impossible  to  say  with  certainty  whether 
they  were  contained  in  one  or  two  chains.  Furthermore,  no  one  of  the 
larger  glaciers  shown  in  panoramas  F  and  I  exactly  corresponds  in 
direction  with  the  Gasherbrum  glacier,  neither  could  any  of  them  be 
followed  with  the  eye  for  a  sufficient  distance  to  establish  its  identity 
with  the  latter. 

In  any  case,  the  panoramas  takeii  by  Sella  and  the  Duke  depict  an 
utterly  unknown  region  between  the  Oprang  valley,  the  upper  Siachen 
glacier  and  the  Broad-Gasherbrum  range.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  it 
will  be  explored  at  some  early  time,  either  by  crossing  some  col  at  the 
head  of  the  Kondus  glacier,  or  else  by  Sella  Pass  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  Godwin  Austen.  Such  an  exploring  expedition  would  probably 
collect  enough  data  to  bring  into  line  with  each  other  the  maps  of  Sir 
Francis  Younghusband,  Dr.  LongstafE  and  the  Duke. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  topography,  I  will  make  mention  of 
certain  angles  taken  by  the  Duke  from  Camps  XIII  and  XIV  on  the 
glacier  and  on  Chogolisa  Saddle.  If  he  had  been  able  to  make  a  third 
station  on  the  high  ridge  of  Bride  Peak,  he  would  have  had  sufficient 
elements  to  add  many  topographical  details  to  the  map  of  the  region 
at  the  head  of  the  Baltoro.  He  was  prevented  by  heavy  mists  from 
making  this  third  station,  and  the  distance  between  the  two  others  was 
too  small  a  base  upon  which  to  found  a  triangulation  of  any  exactness. 

Nevertheless,  the  reading  of  vertical  angles  permitted  some  altimetric 
calculations  which  I  will  set  down  here.     They  must,  however,  be  taken 


Suppk'inentaiy  Xotes  and   ronsiderations.  355 

as  approximate,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  distances  between 
the  peaks  and  the  observation  stations,  due  to  the  shortness  of  the 
base.  According  to  these  observations  the  height  of  the  five  largest 
peaks  of  Golden  Throne,  from  north  to  south,  would  be  22,933,  23,743, 
23,386,  23,563  and  23,375  feet  high.  The  second  peak  would  thus  be 
the  highest.^ 

Conway  gives  Golden  Throne  an  altitude  of  23,600  feet,  a  difference 
of  only  143  feet  between  his  calculation  and  that  of  the  Duke  ;  and  to 
Pioneer  Peak  an  altitude  of  22,600  feet.  He  maintains,  however,*  that 
some  500  feet  should  be  added  to  these  figures,  because  on  comparing 
the  altitude  deduced  from  barometric  observations  made  at  Junction 
Camp  (on  the  Baltoro  at  the  height  of  the  mouth  of  the  Vigne  glacier) 
with  that  based  on  the  readings  of  angles  of  K-,  he  found  the  latter  to 
be  greater  by  500  feet.  The  results  of  our  observations  do  not  agree 
with  these  deductions  of  Conway.  First  of  all,  according  to  our  tri- 
angulation,  the  end  of  the  right  spur  of  the  Vigne,  about  1,100  yards 
away  from  Junction  Camp  and  a  little  higher  up,  proved  to  be  15,738  feet 
high,  hardly  70  feet  more  than  the  altitude  given  by  Conway — in  other 
words,  the  trigonometric  calcidation  agrees  with  the  barometric. 
Further,  the  observations  of  angles  made  from  Camps  XIII  and  XIV 
to  points  triangulated  by  the  Indian  Trigonometrical  Survey  gave 
differences  of  not  more  than  from  150  to  300  feet  in  their  heights,  and 
always  in  excess  ;  from  which  one  may  argue  that  the  figures  calculated 
for  Golden  Throne  are  likewise  approximately  correct,  and  in  any  case 
give  a  higher  rather  than  a  lower  figure.  I  must,  however,  note  that 
the  observations  of  the  Duke  do  not  tally  with  those  of  Conway  so  well 
for  Pioneer  Peak  as  for  the  other  points — in  fact,  one  deduces  from 
the  angles  taken  a  height  of  oidy  21,332  feet  for  it,  1,268  feet  below 
Conway's  figure.  * 

•  Result  of  calculation.  In  his  lecture  before  the  Soc.  Gcog.  Ital.  and  the  Club  Alp.  (see 
BoU.  R.  Soc.  Oeog.  Ital.  Ser.  IV,  11,  1910,  p.  435  ;  and  Revishi  C.  A.  I.,  Jan.  1910,  vol.  29)  the 
Duke  stated  that  the  highest  peak  was  one  of  those  to  the  south-east,  meaning  the  fourth,  which 
instead  turns  out  to  be  180  feet  lower  than  the  second.  But  this  small  difference  is  indecisive, 
as  a  slight  error  in  the  reading  of  the  angles  or  in  the  calculation  of  the  distance  would  be  enough 
to  produce  it. 

•  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  Clitnbing  in  the  Himalayas.  London  1894,  p.  486  ;  Alp.  Jour.  27, 
1894,  p.  33. 

'  As  was  plain  from  Conway's  map  and  description.  Pioneer  Peak  is  not  visible  from  the 
Concordia  nor  from  the  Godwin  Austen  glacier ;  thus  tiuillarmod's  critical  observations  on  its 
height  are  without  foundation. 

(9221)  z  2 


356 


Chapter  XIX. 


The  Duke  also  observed  Mustagh  Tower  from  the  same  camps,  but 
its  distance  from  the  short  base  of  observation  was  too  great  to  rely 
upon  the  result.  I  should  say,  however,  that  the  angles  observed  would 
give  a  height  of  between  23,950  and  24,950  feet.  Conway  had  estimated 
it  at  about  25,000  feet.  ^ 

A  few  further  observations  upon  the  altimetric  data  brought  back 
by  the  expedition  may  be  in  order  here,  with  special  reference  to  those 
of  the  region  of  which  we  made  a  topographical  survey.  They  are  of 
two  kinds :  those  derived  by  intersection  from  the  photogrammetric 
or  tacheometric  stations,  and  those  deduced  from  the  calculations  of 
atmospheric  pressure  made  by  the  Duke  with  the  Fortin  mercury 
barometers  (taking  into  account  temperatm-e  and  tension  of  aqueous 
vapour),  corrected  and  referred  to  the  observations  taken  at  the  same 
time  at  the  base  station  at  Rdokass.  As  I  have  already  said,  the  latter 
— 137  in  number — were  collated  with  the  memoranda  of  local  observa- 
tions made  at  the  meteorological  stations  of  Skardii,  Uilgit,  Leh  and 
Srinagar.  In  constructing  the  map,  the  figures  obtained  by  triangulation 
were  naturally  adopted,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  which  it  was  not 
possible  to  determine  by  triangulation,  and  of  which  the  barometric 
calculation  is  given  instead.  These  points  are  marked  on  the  map  by 
a  small  b  after  the  number.  All  the  results  obtained  by  calculation  of 
pressure  are  incorporated  in  the  tables  of  Prof.  Omodei  (see  Appendix). 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  height  of  some  points  was  taken  by  both 
methods — by  intersection  and  by  comparison  of  barometric  readings. 
Upon  comparing  these  a  discrepancy  becomes  apparent,  as  shown  in  the 
following  table  : — 


stations. 

Heigllt  alx)Ve  st'a  level. 

No.  of 
liarometic. 

obser- 
vation.s. 

Differenee 

between 

(A)  and  (B). 

(A)                             (B) 

Inter-                      Barnni. 

section.                 readinj^s. 

Camp  III 

Camp  V 

Savoia  Pass        

Camp  VI 

Sella  Pass           

Windy  Gap        

Ridge  of  Staircase  Peak         

Camp  XI           

16,512 
18,176 
21,870 
18,602 
20,207 
20.449 
21,657 
16,637 

16,493 

17,825 
20.906 
17,760 
20.053 
19..361 
21,510 
16,175 

26 
6 

1 
10 

1 

8 
1 

1 

19 
.351 
964 
842 
157 
818 
147 
462 

'  If  Mustagh  Tower  is  above  23,000  feet  high,  it  is  certainly  far  from  the  26,250  feet  of 
Guillarmod"s  estimate. 


Supplenientaiy  Xotes  and  Considerations.  357 

The  divergence  is  considerable  and  hard  to  explain  satisfactorily. 
The  calculations  based  upon  barometric  readings  consistently  give  lower 
figures  than  the  trigonometrical  ones.  Thus  it  is  improbable  that  errors 
caused  by  local  variation  of  pressure  are  responsible  for  the  divergence. 
Moreover,  these  are  excluded  from  consideration  by  the  remarkable 
steadiness  of  the  barometer  in  the  Karakoram,  and  by  the  fact  that  all 
the  calculations  were  obtained  by  reference  to  Rdokass,  at  no  great 
distance  away,  in  the  same  valley.  The  height  of  the  latter  had  been 
determined  by  a  long  series  of  operations  extending  through  a  period 
of  six  weeks  and  referred  to  the  four  Kashmiri  stations. 

In  truth,  the  singular  fact  that  the  variations  between  the  altitudes 
calculated  by  intersection  and  those  calculated  by  barometric  readings 
are  all  in  the  same  direction  gives  rise  to  a  doubt  whether  some  constant 
factor  does  not  intervene,  such  as  one  might  find,  for  instance,  in  the 
local  conditions  of  gravity.  It  is  known  that  gravimetrical  observations 
have  revealed  a  considerable  nucleus  of  attraction  in  the  Himalayan 
mass.  It  does  not  seem  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  this  fact  might 
not  only  produce  a  local  greater  density  of  the  atmosphere,  but  also  give 
rise  to  the  movement  of  a  certain  volume  of  air  from  the  surrounding 
regions,  in  the  same  way  that  the  attraction  of  the  earth  masses  is  the 
cause  of  the  higher  level  of  the  sea  on  the  coasts  of  the  large  continents. 
Obviously  this  absolute  increase  in  mass  of  atmosphere  would  result 
in  higher  barometric  pressure  than  would  correspond  to  the  local  alti- 
nietric  figures,  and  bring  about  a  variation  precisely  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  figures  of  the  expedition. 

I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that  geodetic  surveyors  in  general  are  disposed 
to  place  little  reliance  upon  altimetric  calculations  based  upon  atmo- 
spheric pressure.  But  the  Duke  proved  that  the  method,  when  employed 
with  due  caution,  may  give  results  differing  very  little  from  those 
obtained  by  triangulation.  Witness  the  remarkable  agreement  between 
the  result  of  Russell's  triangulation  of  Mount  St.  Elias  in  Alaska  and 
the  barometric  calculations  of  its  height  ;  and  the  fact  that  the  Duke's 
measurement  of  the  seven  principal  peaks  of  the  Ruwenzori,  determined 
by  observations  of  pressure,  were  almost  precisely  confirmed  by  the 
triangulation  of  the  Boundary  Commission  appointed  to  define  the  limits 
between  Uganda  and  the  Congo.  A  much  greater  divergence  has 
often  been  betrayed  between  two  different  triangulations  of  the  same 
points. 

(9221)  z  .3 


358  Cliaplcr   XIX. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  topographical  survey  was  made  by  tlie 
method  which  secures  the  best  control  of  results  and  the  greatest 
guaranty  of  exactness,  and  which  forms  a  permanent  document  to  the 
work  accomplished  in  the  photogrammetric  panorama  made  on  the 
Paganini  method.  Nevertheless,  the  specific  conditions  under  which 
the  work  was  accomplished  brought  in  their  train  inevitable  causes  of 
error.  Of  these,  the  chief  is  the  necessity  that  existed  of  making  all 
observations  of  very  high  mountains  from  the  bottom  of  valleys  very 
deep  and  relatively  narrow.  Such  great  perpendicular  distances  in 
combination  with  such  small  horizontal  ones  did  not  permit  the  exact 
collimation  of  many  points.  Thus,  one  was  never  sure  of  sighting  the 
exact  summit  of  the  mountain  in  cjuestion,  nor  of  seeing  exactly  the 
same  point  from  the  various  stations.  Naturally  neither  the  trigono- 
metrical peaks  nor  the  others  which  were  selected  as  base  points  for  the 
determination  of  the  stations  had  on  top  the  signal  which  makes  it 
possible  to  achieve  an  exact  focus  with  the  telescope.  Thus  it  was 
impossible  to  be  sure  that  a  point  collimatcd  fi-om  various  stations  was 
always  the  same  one,  and  not  another  either  higher  or  lower  or  displaced 
horizontally.  In  addition,  it  was  generally  impossible  to  join  up  the 
different  stations,  because  they  were  usually  not  visible  one  from  another 
on  account  of  the  great  surface  irregularities  of  the  glacier,  even  though 
they  might  be  close  together.  The  smalbiess  of  our  numbers,  the  short- 
ness of  the  time,  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  reaching  and  climbing  the 
steep  valley  walls,  jirevented  us  from  rnaking  stations  at  high  points. 
These  inconveniences  are  not  inherent  in  the  method  of  survey  adopted, 
and  would  have  operated  adversely  on  any  other  that  we  might  have 
chosen.  For  the  reasons  I  have  given,  the  survey  of  the  expedition 
is  called  a  "  sketch,"  and  not  a  topographical  map. 

With  all  these  sources  of  error  and  uncertainty,  it  seemed 
to  the  Duke  wisest  to  publish  both  sets  of  height  statistics.  They 
would  have  lost  all  significance  if  we  had  given  merely  the  arithmetical 
mean  between  them.  As  it  is,  when  the  causes  of  error  are  finally 
understood,  one  of  the  two  sets  will  be  confirmed  and  have  a  definite 
value. 

The  meteorological  observations  made  by  the  Duke  serve  another 
purpose  beside  that  of  determining  height.  Taken  in  connection  with 
the  data  of  other  explorers,  they  will  give  some  general  indications  of 
the  climate  of  the  region,  interesting  from  more  than  one  point  of  view. 


Supplementary  Notes  and  Considerations. 


359 


It  is  already  evident  that  the  high  glacial  basins  of  the  Karakoram  have 
a  special  climate,  quite  different  from  that  of  the  regions  round  about. 
It  suffices  to  mention  the  enormously  high  rate  of  atmospheric  pre- 
cipitation as  contrasted  with  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  surroimding 
country.  This  is  certainly  caused  by  the  mighty  ranges  which  reach 
up  into  the  upper  air  and  snatch  from  the  south-west  monsoon  all  the 
moisture  that  has  escaped  the  lower  Himalayan  ranges. 

A  point  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  several  explorers  is  the 
great  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  at  these  lofty  heights.  R.  Strachey 
called  attention  to  it  as  early  as  1851,^  and  Sir  A.  Cunningham  gives 
some  comparative  readings  of  solar  temperature  made  in  1850.  He  noted 
at  Gualior,  in  the  plains,  a  maximum  solar  temperature  of  132-8°  ; 
at  Simla  (7,500  feet)  of  133-3°;  and  at  Rupshu,  on  the  plateau  of 
Ladakh  (15,500  feet)  of  144°  and  158°  F.^ 

The  Workmans  contend  that  the  solar  temperature  varies  propor- 
tionately with  the  altitude.  From  several  of  their  publications  I  have 
compiled  the  figures  given  in  the  following  tables.  They  show, 
indeed,  that  the  high  altitudes  have  higher  temperatures  than 
the  plains,  but  scarcely  evidence  a  regular  progression  from  low 
to  high. 

Solar  Temperatures  Observed  by  W.   Huxter  and  F.  Bullock 
Workman,  in  1899,  on  the  Chogo  Lungma  Gl.\cier.^ 


Month. 


June 
June 
July       ... 
August ... 
July       ... 


Place. 


Altitude. 


Skarclu  ... 
Shigar   ... 
Chojro  Lungoia 
Chogo  Luugiua 
Chogu  LuDgma 


7,.^)03 

7,.ilfi 

1 4,0^7 

14,067 

17,.322 


Maximum  solar 
temperature. 


201°  F. 
■20ti' 
190 
196= 
204 • 5° 


During  the  summer  of  the  same  year  the  maximum  solar  temperature 
observed  at  Calcutta  was  162°  F.,  and  at  Lahore  172  6°  F. 


'  R.  Strachey,  On  the  Physical  Geography  of  the  Provinces  of  Kuirmiin  and  Gahrical,  etc. 
Jour.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  21,  1851.  51. 

-  Sir  .a.  CtrsNixoHAM,  Ladakh  and  Siirronruling  Countries.     London  1854. 

'  W.  HuxTEK  WoKKJUvx    and    F.  BfLUSCK    \\'orkjlvx,    Jn   the    Ice-World   of    Himalaya 
London  1901. 

(9221)  z  4 


36U 


ChaptLM-  XIX. 


S0LA.R  Temperatures  Observed  ijv  W.   Hunter  and  F.  Bullock 
Workman,  in  1906,  in  Suru  and  thc  Nun  Kun  Group. ^ 


Month. 

Place. 

Altitude. 

Maximum  solar 
temperature. 

June      

Kargyl 

8,78" 

199°  F. 

June      

Clialis  Kot 

9,000 

203 

June      

Suru      

10.8.->0 

206 

August 

Suru      

10,850 

219 

July      

Rangilum  Valley        

]  2,900 

204-5 

July       

Zuliiluk... 

13,270 

205 

Julv      

Shafat  Nala     

13,325 

200 

August 

Glat-iei's  of  Nun  Kun 

15,100 

183 

August 

Glaciers  of  Nun  Kun 

21,300 

142 

It  is  hardly  permissible  to  compare,  as  the  Workmans  do,  the  highest 
solar  temperature  with  the  minimum  atmospheric,  the  two  things  being 
quite  distinct,  and  the  solar  temperature  varying  quite  independently 
of  the  atmospheric. 

The  solar  temperatures  given  by  the  Workmans  are  higher  than  any 
noted  by  our  expedition.  I  have  tabulated  our  results  likewise.  They 
also  show  that  there  is  not  a  constant  relation  between  altitude  and 
temperature.  I  have  not  included  the  lowest  records  taken  on  days 
of  cloud  or  bad  weather.  Moreover,  the  exceedingly  variable  and 
vmcertain  conditions  prevented  our  making  regular  observations,  hence 


Solar  Temperatures  Observed  by  the  Duke. 


Date. 


Place. 


Altitude. 


Miininum  and  iiiuxiiiium 

solar  temperature. 

Fahrenheit. 


May  9-17 

Shigjir,  Braldoli 

„    2.5-31       ... 

Camp 

III     ... 

June  1-19 

Ill     ... 

„     5-8         ... 

■>•< 

V     ... 

„     12-23    ... 

VI     ... 

„     15 

n 

VII      ... 

„     29-July  5 

>) 

IX      ... 

July  3-8 

„ 

XII      ... 

„     10-16    ... 

XIV      ... 

„     11 

Ji 

XV  (1) 

„    n 

)) 

XV  (2) 

Biaho  Villi 


Feet. 
10,013-11,000 
16,512 
16,512 
18,176 
18,602 
20,449 
15,817 
17,959 
20,784 
21,673 
22,483 


105-8-138'2° 
108  5-123-M° 
90-4- 123-8° 
123-8-14I-8' 
114-8-131' 
140° 

109-4-116-6 
120-2-1.34-6 
114-8-140- 
123-8' 
162-6° 


'  W.  Hunter  WoRKM,wr,  Exploration  of  the  Xiin  Kun  Mountains,  etc.  Geog.  Jour.  31, 
1908,  12 ;  W.  Hunter  and  F.  Buli/jck  \Vokkm.\n,  Peaks  and  Glaciers  of  the  Nun  Kun. 
London  1909. 


Suppleinentary  Notes  and  Considerations.  361 

the  fragmentary  character  of  the  data.  The  reading  of  the  solar 
thermometer  was  done  at  8,  10  and  4  o'clock,  at  the  same  time  as  the 
observations  made  at  Rdokass  and  in  Kashmir.  Thus  the  midday 
record — which  would  naturally  be  the  highest — does  not  appear. 
According  to  the  Workmans  the  maximum  was  attained  between  12 
and  2  o'clock.  At  no  place  or  time  did  we  have  excessive  heat  or  feel 
such  consequences  of  it  as  headache,  dizziness,  &c. 

Next,  as  regards  the  temperature  of  the  air,  I  need  only  record  the 
relative  mildness  of  the  month  of  July,  at  heights  between  20,000  and 
23,000  feet.  The  lowest  temperature  registered  at  Chogolisa  Saddle 
was  3°  ;  on  the  ridge  of  Bride  Peak  (24,600  feet)  at  2  o'clock  on  a  day 
of  heavy  fog  the  temperature  was  21°.  These  are  also  about  the 
records  for  the  month  of  June  on  the  Savoia  glacier  and  at  Windy  Gap. 
The  fact  has  some  importance,  on  account  of  its  bearing  upon  the 
problem  of  ascents  to  great  heights,  since  one  of  the  adverse  arguments 
often  adduced  is  the  extreme  and  intolerable  cold  that  must  exist  at 
such  altitudes.  In  reality  there  does  not  obtain  upon  the  mountain 
slopes  an  actual  proportionate  relation  between  the  rise  of  the  altitude 
and  the  fall  of  the  thermometer,  because  other  factors,  such  as  the 
radiation  from  the  earth  and  the  warm  currents  rising  from  the  valleys, 
always  intervene  to  modify  the  temperature. 

In  the  Introduction  I  have  tried  to  bring  out  the  impossibility  of 
applying  to  mountain  climbing  the  theoretical  physiological  limit  derived 
by  scientists  from  experiments  on  the  effects  of  reduced  atmospheric 
pressure  upon  the  human  system.  Such  experiments  simply  serve  to 
establish  the  general  fact  that  the  system  is  capable  of  enduring  for  a 
short  time,  without  serious  consequences,  an  atmospheric  pressure  that 
would  correspond  to  an  altitude  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  Mount 
Everest.  But  the  simple  conditions  of  artificially  reduced  pressure 
in  a  closed  chamber  hardly  exist  under  natural  circumstances — for 
instance,  in  balloon  ascents  the  effect  is  entirely  different.  Altitudes 
of  between  29,500  and  36,000  feet — in  other  words,  a  condition  of 
atmospheric  pressure  far  less  reduced  than  that  easily  endured  in  the 
closed  chamber — have  been  known  to  cause  serious  organic  disorders 
and  even  death  to  some  experimenters.  Yet  in  such  ascents  the  only 
additional  factor,  not  present  in  the  former  experiment,  would  seem  to 
be  the  cold  of  the  high  altitude.  It  is  plain  that  there  is  no  useful 
deduction  to   be  drawn  from  these   facts  for  the  field  of  mountain 


■M->  Chapter  XTX. 

climbing,  where  so  many  and  various  factors  are  present,  the  chief  of 
them  being  (1)  the  muscular  exertion  and  (2)  the  incomparably  longer 
duration  of  the  experiment. 

The  work  of  Angelo  Mosso  and  his  school  has  stimulated  modern 
physiologists  to  undertake  a  systematic  study  of  the  effects  of  high 
altitude  upon  the  human  organism,  with  the  aid  of  all  the  most  recent 
analytic  methods.  The  establishment  of  the  observation  hut  Mar- 
gherita  on  the  Gnifetti  Peak  of  Monte  Rosa  (15,100  feet)  sprang  from 
the  initiative  of  Angelo  Mosso,  and  has  been  carried  out  by  the  Italian 
Alpine  Club.  To-day,  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  new  buildings,  it 
has  become  an  important  scientific  station  for  biological  research  and 
physical  experiments  at  high  altitudes.  It  is  gradually  producing  a 
series  of  results  which  will  materially  assist  in  solving  the  problem  of  life 
at  great  heights.^  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  upon  more  details, 
since  the  results  thus  far  achieved  do  not  contribute  to  the  precise 
matter  in  hand — the  problem  of  the  greatest  height  to  which  man  can 
ascend.  On  this  point  only  purely  empirical  evidence  exists,  such  as 
is  embodied  in  all  the  narratives  of  mountain  climbing  which  we  possess. 
And  unfortunately  the  experience  of  mountaineers  varies  to  such  a 
degree  and  the  effects  attributable  to  altitude  alone  are  such  inconstant 
factors  and  so  hard  to  distinguish,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  gather 
any  general  conclusions  from  them. 

One  strange  and  imexplained  fact  is  that  oii  certain  mountains  and 
in  certain  regions  ascents  to  great  heights  almost  without  exception 
cause  what  we  call  mountain  sickness,  varying  in  symptoms  and  intensity 
according  to  the  individual,  whereas  other  regions  are  apparently  free. 
Mont  Blanc  has  always  had  an  evil  fame  in  this  regard,  and  all  the 
accounts  of  mountain  climbing  in  the  Andes  lay  stress  upon  the  sick- 


'  Among  the  principal  works  dealing  with  the  subject,  be.side  the  well-known  book  of  Ancelo 
Mosso,  La  fisidlogia  deWuomo  in  montagna,  see  H.  ZxrsTZ,  A.  Loewt,  F.  Mi  ller  and  W.  Caspari, 
Hohenclima  und  Bergwanderungen,  etc.  Berlin  1906  ;  and  the  latest  publications  of  R.  F.  FucHS 
in  Sitziingsb.  d.  physik.-mediz.  SozieUU  in  Erlangen,  ro\.  40.  UK)8,  and  vol.  41,  1909.  Dr.  T.  G. 
Ix)NGSTAFF  has  brought  out  in  his  monograjih  Motintain  Sickness  (London  1906)  tlic  bearing 
which  these  scientific  researches  have  upon  mountain  climbing  in  its  practical  aspect,  and  the 
conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  them  relative  to  the  phenomena  of  mountain  sickness.  He  gives 
a  succinct  history  of  mountain  climbing  from  this  point  of  view,  and  tlie  lessons  to  be  drawn 
from  it.  See  also  two  articles  by  JL^lcolm  Hepburx,  The  Influence  of  High  Altitudes  in 
Mountaineering.  Alp.  Jour.  20,  1901,  p.  368  ;  and  Some  Reasons  why  Ike  Science  of  AUitude 
Illness  is  still  in  its  Infancy.     Alp.  Jour.  21,  1902,  p.  161. 


Sui)plementaiy  Notes  and  Considerations.  363 

ness  caused  there  by  high  altitude.^  However,  since  the  repeated 
ascents  of  Mount  Aconcagua,  ^  the  highest  peak  in  the  world  outside  the 
Indo-Asiatic  chains,  this  fact  has  lost  all  practical  importance.  The 
problem  of  altitude  has  now  concentrated  itself  upon  the  Indo-Asiatic 
ranges.  And  it  looks  thus  far  as  if  this,  the  most  wonderful  field  of 
activity  for  the  mountaineer  that  exists  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  were 
also  the  field  where  the  bad  effects  of  rarefaction  upon  the  human 
system  are  less  to  be  apprehended  than  elsewhere. 

The  progressive  history  of  mountain  climbing,  from  its  inception 
down  to  the  present  day,  seems  to  show  that  man's  power  of  endurance 
and  capacity  for  exertion  at  great  heights  have  steadily  increased.  There 
was  a  time  when  every  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc  meant  serious  suffering — 
severe  headache,  dizziness,  nausea,  debility,  disturbances  of  the  respira- 
tion and  circulation,  sometimes  haemorrhage.  To-day  no  trained 
mountain  climber  ever  thinks  of  such  possibilities  when  making  the 
ascent,  and  we  have  conquered  23,000  feet  of  altitude  without  sufferings 
in  any  way  comparable  to  those  we  read  of  in  the  early  days  of  Alpine 
climbing. 

One  would  say  that  mountain  sickness,  once  a  necessary  evil  of 
mountain  clirubing,  is  gradually  disappearing,  in  the  same  way  that 
scurvy  has  ceased  to  be  the  inevitable  accompaniment  of  polar  expedi- 
tions. The  reason  doubtless  lies  in  the  development  and  perfecting 
of  the  equipment,  and  in  the  gradual  increase  of  knowledge  as  to  the 
best  plan  of  life  and  work  under  conditions  of  high  altitude.  Such 
knowledge  reduces  to  a  minimum  the  exertions,  the  fatigues  and  the 
dissipation  of  energy,  and  leaves  the  climber  in  the  best  condition  for 
the  actual  achievement  of  his  feat  of  conquest. 

The  Duke's  expedition  offers  the  clearest  proof  that  men  can  live 
for  extended  periods  of  time,  in  possession  of  healthy  functional  activity 
of  all  their  organs,  at  an  atmospheric  pressure  little  more  than  half  of 
normal.  Twelve  Europeans  and  fifteen  coolies  lived  for  about  two 
months  at  above  17,000  feet  of  altitude,  working  regularly  and  not 
showing  a  single  case  of  illness,  even  of  the  most  fleeting  character, 
attributable  to  mountain  sickness.     At  the  end  of  our  campaign  seven 

'  See  in  general  the  volume  of  E.  \\'iivmper,  Andes  of  the  Equator.  London  1892,  and  The 
Highest  Andes,  by  E.  A.  FitzGer-VLD  (London  1899) ;  also  articles  by  the  same  author  in  Geog. 
Jour.  12,  1898,  p.  469,  and  Alp.  .Jonr.  19,  1898,  p.  1. 

'  S.  V^INES,  Aconcagua  and  Tupungato.     Alp.  Jour.  19,  1898,  p.  565 


364  Chapter  XIX. 

Europeans  spent  nine  days  at  a  height  of  more  than  20,700  feet,  during 
which  time  four  of  them  camped  for  the  night  at  21,673  and  22,483  feet, 
and  this  without  even  tlie  inconvenience  of  sleeplessness.  They  like- 
wise made  two  steep  ascents,  through  deep  soft  snow,  to  23.458  and 
24,600  feet,  without  exhaustion,  without  loweriiig  of  morale,  without 
exaggerated  difficulty  of  breathing,  palpitation  or  irregularity  of  the 
pulse ;  and  with  no  symptoms  of  headache,  nausea  or  the  like.  The 
fact  of  their  immunity  admits  of  but  one  interpretation — rarefaction 
of  the  air,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  the  high  mountains,  to  the  limits 
reached  hy  man  at  the  'present  day  {12-^.2  inches)  does  not  produce  mountain 
sickness.  Moreover,  rarefaction  of  the  air  is  not  incompatible  with 
mountaineering  work,  if  this  is  done  very  slowly  and  methodically. 
From  this  it  follows  that  the  phenomena  which  have  to  this  day  been 
considered  to  be  the  result  of  rarefaction  are,  in  reality,  phenomena  of 
fatigue,  or  merely  incapacity  (temporary  or  permanent)  of  the  system 
to  sustam  the  exertion  of  climbing,  manifesting  itself  with  special 
symptoms  under  the  presence  of  the  particular  external  conditions 
which  prevail  in  the  mountains. 

None  the  less,  the  experience  of  the  expedition  was  not  one  of 
absolute  immunity.  The  atmosphere  of  those  heights  did  work  some 
evil  effect,  revealing  itself  only  gradually,  after  several  weeks  of  life 
above  17,000  feet,  in  a  slow  decrease  of  appetite  and  consequent  lack  of 
nourishment,  without,  however,  any  disturbance  of  the  digestive  func- 
tions. It  was  possible  for  the  lack  of  appetite  to  increase  and  become 
almost  absolute  repugnance  to  food,  if  after  its  appearance  one  moved 
and  established  oneself  at  a  greater  height.  Thus,  at  Chogolisa  Camp 
the  Duke  and  the  guides  had  given  up  meat  and  lived  on  soups,  coffee, 
tea,  chocolate  and  biscuits.  In  the  two  ascents  above  23,000  feet  theii* 
only  food  all  day  was  a  little  chocolate,  although  they  suffered  no  nausea 
or  other  impleasant  sensations.  Of  course,  in  the  long  run,  this  insuffi- 
cient nourishment  would  cause  a  lowering  of  vitality,  loss  of  flesh  and 
a  certain  amount  of  anaemia.  However,  the  process  is  so  slow  that  we 
were  still  at  the  end  of  two  months  in  condition  to  make  long  marches 
without  experiencing  excessive  fatigue. 

The  Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod  expedition  seems  to  have  suffered 
the  same  decrease  of  appetite  and  strength,  which  Guillarmod  attributes 
to  the  use  of  tiimed  foods.  AH  the  former  experience  of  the  Duke  was 
against  this  explanation.     On  the  expeditions  to  Alaska   (Mount  St. 


Supplementary  Notes  and  Considerations.  365 

Ellas)  and  Africa  (Ruwenzori)  and  on  the  much  longer  polar  expedition, 
there  was  never  any  repugnance  to  the  tinned  foods  nor  any  evil  trace- 
able to  their  use.  They  were  chosen  for  the  Karakoram  campaign 
with  the  same  care  as  on  the  other  occasions,  and  came  from  the  same 
factories.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  of  themselves  they  would 
have  any  different  effect.  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  loss  of  appetite  is 
due  instead  to  incomplete  oxidation  of  waste  products  or  their  slower 
elimination.  In  either  case  there  would  be  a  gradual  accumulation  of 
noxious  products  in  the  system,  sufficient  to  explain  the  symptoms 
that  showed  themselves.  This  theory  would  also  account  for  the  diffi- 
culty, already  mentioned,  with  which  even  a  very  robust  system  regained 
its  balance  after  a  slight  disturbance,  and  for  the  distinctly  bad 
effects  of  inacti\'ity.  Whether  the  conversion  of  products  were 
incomplete  or  only  sluggish,  movement  would  be  the  best  stimulant  to 
proper  metabolism. 

The  gradual  depletion  of  force  which  I  have  described  gives  a 
negative  answer  to  the  much  debated  question  on  the  subject  of 
acclimatization.  Perfect  adaptation  to  surroundings  is  not  possible 
above  17,000  feet.  In  this  \'iew  both  Schlagiutweit  and  Longstaff 
concur.  The  latter  mentions  that  the  highest  altitudes  inhabited  by 
man  are  the  goldfields  of  Thok  Jalung,  in  Western  Tibet,  16,500  feet 
high,  and  certain  Llamaist  monasteries  of  the  same  region,  15,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  from  which  it  woidd  seem  that  some  17,000  feet  would 
be  the  limit  of  permanent  endurance. 

A  curious  fact  showing  how  up  to  a  certain  point  the  system  imder- 
goes  modifications  adapting  it  to  life  at  great  heights,  is  that  the  people 
of  upper  Ladakh  are  averse  to  descending  lower  than  10,000  feet,  and 
positively  refuse  to  go  below  7,000  feet  for  fear  of  illness.  This  is 
mentioned  by  Knight,  and  I  had  the  opportmiity  of  verifv'ing  the  fact. 
Perhaps  there  exists  such  a  thing  as  "  mountain  sickness  "  caused  by 
abrupt  change  from  lower  to  higher  pressure.  To  it  may  possibly  be 
attributed,  at  least  in  part,  the  exhaustion  of  the  Duke  and  the  guides 
on  the  way  from  Chogolisa  Saddle  to  Askoley.  Conway  relates  that  he 
had  more  difficulty  in  breathing  when  he  went  down  the  Baltoro 
after  climbing  Pioneer  Peak  than  he  experienced  during  the  whole 
ascent. 


360  Chapter  XL\. 

I  give  here  a  table  showing  the  composition  of  our  daily  ration  :^ 


Fooiistuffs. 

Weight  in 
graininos. 

AnnnniiH>iils. 

Fats. 

Car!  10- 
hydrates. 

Calories. 

Biscuits  ...          

Sou|)  paste          

Meat       

Butter     

Condeiisfil   milk  (with- 
out sugar) 

Cheese     

Chocolate            

Sugar       

Pea  flour 

Preserves            

.500 
100 

12:) 

87 
50 
41 
120 
42 
38 

50-0 

120 

730 

0-7 

8-9 

2-0 

4-8 

1-5 

0-3 

32-0 

104-8 

10-0 

14-0 

5-0 

400-0 
75-0 

0-5 

2-0 

28-3 

105-2 

12-0 

150 

1,859 
358 
597 
980 

138 
193 
171 
431 
69 
61 

166-9                167-6 

638-0 

4,857 

To  these  were  added  Liebig's  extract,  coffee,  tea,  onions,  salt,  pepper 
and  mustard.  We  used  ship's  biscuits,  which  take  the  place  of  bread 
excellently  well,  even  for  long  periods.  They  were  made  in  Italy,  and 
specially  prepared  without  salt,  as  they  keep  better  so.  Our  soup  paste 
was  very  small,  for  cooking  at  175°  F.,  at  which  temperature  water  boils 
at  an  atmospheric  pressure  half  of  normal.  Our  meats  were  Australian, 
of  two  or  three  kinds,  but  always  very  simply  prepared.  In  such  enter- 
prises the  complicated,  so-called  appetizing  cookery  employed  in  most 
of  the  tinned  foods  of  commerce  is  very  much  better  avoided. 

We  took  with  us  some  whiskey  to  use  medicinally  or  in  occasional 
celebration  of  some  special  achievement.  But  alcohol  was  excluded 
from  our  habitual  diet.  I  cannot  concur  in  the  opinion  of  Conway 
and  Guillarmod  that  it  is  necessary  to  well-being  and  a  useful  stimulant.  ^ 

Next  to  the  question  of  food,  that  of  clothing  as  protection  against 
the  cold  is  of  importance.  A  double  sleeping-sack  (of  eiderdown  and 
pelt)  is  a  necessity.  With  it  one  is  protected  from  cold  6i  several  degrees 
below  freezing,  even  when  the  tent  is  set  up  on  ice  and  snow.  The 
usual  weight  of  woollens  used  for  mountaineering  is  sufficient,  worn 
double   if  necessary.     Special   attention  must   be   paid   to   the   shoes. 

•  On  this  point  I  desire  to  mention  Dk.  L.  Schnyder's  Alcool  et  alpini^me  (Geneva  1907), 
containing  the  results  of  a  thorough  enquiry  made  among  mountain  climbers,  the  large  majority 
of  whom  gave  their  opinion  against  the  use  of  alcohol  in  mountain  climbing.  This  agrees  with 
the  scientific  researches  which  have  resulted  in  the  classification  of  alcohol  among  the  depriments 
rather  than  among  the  stimulants.  True  stimulants  are  tea,  coffee,  cocoa.  If  one  has  ample 
portage  facilities  one  may  carry  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  to  use  after  the  day's  work  is  done — 
but  it  ranks  as  a  luxury,  not  as  a  necessity. 


Supplementary  Notes  and  Considerations.  367 

Mountain  climbing  at  exceptional  heights  is  attended  with  a  long  record 
of  frozen  feet,  the  cause  of  which  may  be,  as  many  believe,  retarded 
circulation.  On  our  expedition  we  all  wore  a  special  sort  of  boot, 
devised  by  the  Sellas  for  winter  climbing  on  the  Alps.  There  is  a  piece 
of  coney  skin  between  the  lining  and  the  leather.  The  nails  must  be 
driven  in  at  the  edge  of  the  sole,  in  such  a  way  that  the  point  comes 
outside  of  the  upper  leather,  and  thus  cannot  conduct  any  heat 
away  from  the  foot.  In  their  ascent  of  Kabru  Rubenson  and  Monrad 
Aas  they  had  to  remove  the  nails  from  their  boots  to  keep  their  feet 
from  freezing.  On  exceptionally  cold  mornings  we  wrapped  our  feet 
and  legs  in  pieces  of  woollen  stuff  held  in  place  by  the  straps  of 
the  crampons.  We  had  no  cases  of  frost-bitten  feet  throughout  the 
campaign. 

I  have  mentioned  that  none  of  us  felt  any  ill  effects  from  the  solar 
radiation,  but  we  all  wore  our  solar  helmets  all  the  time.  Neither  did 
we  suifer  to  any  great  extent  from  snow  rashes  or  eritema  solans — of 
course,  this  varied  with  the  individual,  but  all  of  us  were  able  to  keep 
it  within  bounds  by  using  lanoline. 

I  have  already  emphasized  the  experimental  value  possessed  by 
the  Didvc's  expedition  on  account  of  the  special  conditions  under  which 
it  was  made.  Thus  it  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  discuss  in  detail  the 
opinions  of  various  other  explorers  on  the  question  of  attaining  high 
altitudes.  They  are  almost  all  more  optimistic  than  formerly.  In 
1892  Conway  still  doubted  that  it  was  possible  to  reach  24,000  feet, 
but  he  has  surrendered  to  the  accomplished  fact.  Dr.  and  Mrs. 
Workman  are  the  greatest  sceptics,  and  their  view  has  weight  because 
both  of  them  have  ascended  to  over  23,000  feet  in  the  Himalaya  and 
the  Karakoram.  Yet  an  analysis  of  the  arguments  upon  which  they 
base  their  opinion  shows  them  all  to  be  contradicted  by  the  experience 
of  our  expeditioji.  It  has  disproved  their  assertion  that  it  is  impossible 
to  sleep  properly  or  protect  oneself  from  cold  at  and  over  21,000  feet  ; 
or  that  rapid  diminution  of  strength  appears  above  20,000  feet,  or 
serious  mental  incapacity,  loss  of  will  power,  etc.  Dr.  Workman  has 
compiled  a  set  of  statistics  showing  that  of  the  fifteen  Europeans  who 
took  part  in  their  various  expeditions,  twelve  reached  21,000  feet,  seven 
22,570  feet,  six  23,000  feet,  five  23,300  feet,  and  only  three  23,480  feet. 
These  figures  could  have  value  only  if  they  had  been  obtained  for  fifteen 
persons  starting  at  the  same  time  in  equally  good  condition  of  health 


368  Chapter  XIX. 

ami  vigour  to  make  the  same  ascent.  Unfortunately,  parties  of  fifteen 
persons  cannot  make  ascents  above  23,000  feet,  on  account  of  the 
obvious  impossibility  of  transporting  the  necessary  equipment. 

Putting  aside  all  these  objections,  the  logical  conclusion  to  be  derived 
from  our  expedition  is  that,  under  present  conditions,  altitude  is  not 
to  be  considered  as  in  itself  an  obstacle  to  an  ascent.  Our  experience 
rather  tends  to  prove  that,  if  there  is  a  physiological  limit,  we  are  still 
far  from  reaching  it.  The  real  difficulty  to  be  confronted  and  solved 
is  the  one  of  transport.  In  this  respect  conditions  in  the  Himalaya  are 
most  favourable.  It  has  been  said  that  the  coolies  form  one  of  the 
great  difficulties  to  be  wrestled  with  in  an  expedition  to  the  Himalaya. 
But  our  experience  is  quite  the  contrary — namely,  that  without  their 
excellent  qualities  as  porters  it  would  be  impossible  to  organize  expedi- 
tions in  this  region.  Their  uncommon  strength  and  powers  of  resistance, 
their  temperateness,  their  amenable  and  gentle  dispositions,  and  their 
capacity  for  hard  work  have  already  been  recognized  by  all  those  whom 
they  have  served  from  one  end  of  the  Himalaya  to  the  other.  A  single 
dissenting  voice  has  little  weight  in  the  verdict  in  their  favour. 

Our  expedition  can  heartily  concur  in  this  verdict  as  far  as  the  Baltis 
are  concerned.  We  succeeded  in  persuading  them  to  camp  for  several 
days  running  above  the  snow  line,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  would 
adapt  themselves  to  living  without  fire  if  they  were  supplied  with  alcohol 
or  paraffin  stoves  to  boil  their  water  and  tea.  We  also  induced  them 
to  eat  some  of  our  food,  such  as  biscuits  and  butter — a  fact  not  without 
practical  bearing  on  the  subject  under  discussion.  The  Baltis  are  good 
rock  climbers,  and  quickly  learn  to  walk  on  the  glaciers  and  steep  snow 
slopes.  When  they  are  properly  equipped,  and  if  one  meets  half  way 
with  a  little  sympathy  and  humanity  their  natural  fears  and  timidity, 
one  can  do  anything  one  likes  with  them. 

Major  C.  G.  Bruce,  who  is  probably  better  acquainted  than  any 
other  European  with  the  peoples  of  the  western  Himalaya,  has  recently 
written  some  words  of  wisdom,  which  I  take  pleasure  in  quoting  here, 
for  they  contain  excellent  counsel  to  all  future  travellers  to  those 
regions  :— 

"  The  transport  question  throughout  the  Hindu  Koosh  and  Hima- 
laya is  undoubtedly  a  difficulty,  but  in  my  opinion  should  not  be  so 
great  a  one  as  many  recent  travellers  have  found  it.  They,  however, 
are  generally  handicapped  by  being  unable  to  communicate  direct  with 


Siipijlementary  Notes  and  Considerations.  36i» 

the  people  and  by  not  understanding  their  point  of  view.  The  different 
native  races  are  much  worse  fed,  certainly  worse  clothed,  and  probably 
more  superstitious  regarding  the  great  mountains  than  the  Swiss  were 
100  years  ago,  and  yet  there  was  considerable  difficulty  at  that  period 
in  getting  even  the  best  chamois  hunters  to  undertake  any  new  bit  of 
exploration.  What  would  have  happened  if  a  whole  village  had  been 
ordered  to  send  every  available  man  with  some  unknown  Englishman, 
and  to  stay  with  him  for  a  fortnight  above  the  snow  line,  is  better 
imagined  than  described,  yet  this  is  what  must  necessarily  occur  in  the 
Himalaya.  It  will  therefore  be  understood  that  to  get  the  best  work 
out  of  men  who  cannot  be  expected  to  go,  as  a  body,  anything  but  most 
unwillingly,  requires  tact,  sympathy  and  understanding  kindness  towards 
them,  as  well  as  considerable  assistance  in  the  matter  of  extra  food  and 
clothing,  if  they  are  to  be  employed  for  any  length  of  time."^ 

It  is  not  only  the  coolies  who  need  education.  Mountaineers  and 
guides  have  to  train  their  senses  to  understand  and  measure  the  new 
conditions  of  a  world  built  upon  proportions  so  incomparably  larger 
than  those  of  the  familiar  Alps  that  the  judgment  even  of  the  most 
expert  is  found  wanting.  They  have  to  learn  to  estimate  the  obstacles, 
the  inclination  of  the  slopes  and  ridges,  the  height  and  nature  of  the 
rocks,  the  complications  of  the  ice  and  snow,  all  the  chances  and  diffi- 
culties of  mountain  climbing,  which  can  only  be  successfvdly  met  if 
they  are  recognized  before  one  enters  upon  the  conflict  with  them. 

The  history  of  mountaineering  in  the  Himalaya  is  only  just  begun. 
Perhaps  a  time  wUl  come  when  new  De  Saussures  and  new  AMiympers 
will  appear  in  the  field  and  repeat  the  story  of  the  conquest  of  the  Alps. 

'  Major  the  Hon.  C.  G.  Bbuce,  Twenty  Years  in  the  Himalaya.    London  1910. 


(9221) 


APPENDICES. 


(9221) 


Appendix    A. 


PHOTOGRAMMETRIC  SURVEY 

On  the  scale  of    I  :  100.000 


IN    THE 


KARAKORAM    (WESTERN     HIMALAYA). 

Comprising  Part  of  the  Upper  End  of  the  Baltoro  Glacier  and   the 

Godwin  Austen  and  Savoia  Glaciers. 


BY 
FEDERICO    NEGROTTO    CAMBIASO. 
Ship's  Lieutenant. 


(9221)  2  A  3 


PHOTOGRAMMETRIC    SURVEY. 


I. — Selection  of  the  Method  followed  in  the  Execution  of  the  Suri'ey. 

The    Godwin    Austen    glacier,  the 
two  branches  of  it  which  surround 
to   west   and   east   the   main   mass 
of    K-,    and    the    buttresses    that 
enclose    these,    were    surveyed    by 
photogrammetry.         This       special 
method,  invented  by  the  geographer 
C'omni.    Pio   Paganini,    formerly   an 
officer  in  the  Royal  Italian  Nav)-, 
has  been  adopted  by  the  Military 
Geographical  Institute  of  Florence 
for  the  surveying  of  high  mountains. 
Thanks  to  the  painstaking  studies 
of  many  years  and  to  the  instru- 
ments   devised    and    perfected    by 
Comm.   Paganini,   his   method    has    attained    the    highest   degree  of    simplicity 
and  practical  utility,   and  may  with  advantage  replace  all  other  topographical 
methods  in  difficult  or  inaccessible  regions.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  steep  mountains 
and  large  glaciers,  to  places  beyond  the  frontier  or  such  as  are  occupied  by  the 
enemy ;  to  unhealthy  districts ;  finally,  to  any  place  where  long  and  tiresome  marches 
leave  little  time  for  surveying  with  the  plane  table,  tacheonieter  and  theodolite. 

In  surveying  high  mountainous  regions  with  the  plane  table,  the  Military 
Geographical  Institute  has  abandoned  the  use  of  the  tape.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
the  tacheometer,  which  under  the  circumstances  serves  as  a  theodolite.  The  points 
for  the  survey  are  always  determined  by  intersection.  Then  all  the  directions  at 
points  useful  for  the  surve)'  must  be  observed  and  noted  on  the  spot,  either  with  the 
plane  table,  the  tacheometer  or  the  theodolite,  and  supplemented  by  numerous 
sketches  to  help  later  in  making  the  map.  The  method  of  the  plane  table,  although 
it  has  the  advantage  of  enabling  one  to  reproduce  natural  features  on  the  spot,  takes, 
on  the  other  hand,  more  time  at  each  station.  Moreover,  in  case  of  bad  weather 
it  is  not  easy  to  keep  the  drawing  from  being  injured  in  the  process  of  execution, 

and  finally  the  apparatus  is  difficult  to  transport  in  the  high  mountains. 

(9221)  "  2  A  4 


370  Appendix  A 

With  the  photogrammetric  method  all  the  required  directions  to  the  points 
may  be  obtained  afterwards  from  the  photographs  taken  from  properly  chosen 
stations.  The  photographic  apparatus  is  provided  with  special  measuring  devices 
to  furnish  the  photogra2:)hic  perspectives  with  the  elements  needed  for  the  survey. 
In  the  field  the  only  point  of  similarity  between  this  method  and  earlier  ones  is  the 
determination  of  the  stations  by  taking  bearings  to  surrounding  trigonometrical 
points.  This  determination  may  if  necessary  be  made  at  home  with  the  panoramic 
views,  provided  the  points  are  well  defined,  as  is  the  case  in  the  high  mountains, 
where  they  usually  consist  of  sharp  and  conspicuous  summits.  Thus  with  the 
photogrammetric  method  all  that  has  to  be  done  out  of  doors  is  the  adjusting  of 
the  instrument,  the  taking  of  the  panoramic  views  and  the  noting  in  the  field  book 
the  orientation  and  bearings  to  the  trigonometrical  points  necessary  to  determine 
the  station.  Other  notes  may  be  taken  :  as  of  the  directions  which  may  help  to 
determine  with  greater  precision  such  distinctive  points  as  may  be  useful  points 
of  reference  for  subsequent  stations ;  or  to  fix  the  perspective  when  the  number 
of  trigonometric  points  is  insufficient ;  or  to  obtain  at  once  a  trigonometrical  net 
comiected  with  one  or  more  bases  measured  directly.  This  would  be  necessary 
in  lands  where  no  measurements  had  pre^^ously  been  taken.  The  photogrammetric 
method  consists  in  taking  in  the  field  a  series  of  ^^ews  from  different  stations,  and 
these  pictures  serve  later  as  the  basis  of  all  those  operations  which  under  any  other 
method  must  be  performed  on  the  spot.  There  is  further  the  advantage  that  we 
can  determine  as  many  points  as  we  want  according  to  the  scale  adopted  and  the 
amount  of  detail  we  wish  to  give  to  the  map.  The  Paganini  apparatus  supplies 
vertical  topographical  perspectives,  upon  which  are  traced  two  orthogonal  axes. 
The  intersection  of  these  axes  coincides  with  the  principal  point  of  the  perspective, 
which  by  construction  is  also  the  meeting  of  the  optical  axis  of  the  lens  or  of  the 
camera  with  the  plane  of  the  image.  Of  the  two  perpendicular  axes  traced  on  the 
negative  and  thence  transferred  to  the  pcsitive,  one  is  the  line  of  the  horizontal 
plane  which  passes  through  the  view-point  of  the  perspective,  and  thus  represents 
the  horizon  of  the  station  ;  the  other  is  the  line  of  the  vertical  plane  which  contains 
the  optical  axis  of  the  camera  ;  hence  also  the  view-point  and  the  principal  point 
of  the  perspective  itself.  This  holds  good,  of  course,  only  when  the  necessary 
adjustment  of  the  apparatus  is  made  previously.  In  order  to  use  the  photographic 
perspectives  thus  obtained  for  mapping  the  ground  which  they  represent,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  distance  of  the  view-point  from  the  plane  on  which  they 
are  formed^in  other  words,  the  length  of  the  perpendicular  line  drawn  from  the 
said  point  to  this  plane.  As  in  our  case  we  are  dealing  with  photographic 
perspectives  in  which  the  ground  shown  can  be  considered  to  be  at  infinity,^  their 
point  of  view  coincides  with  the  second  nodal  point  of  the  lens,  and  the  principal 
focal  length  of  the  latter  represents  the  length  of  the  aforesaid  distance.  The  lens 
'  Cf.  Pagasini,  Foiogrammelria.     Milan  U.  Hoepli  1901. 


Photoirrammetric  Survey.  377 


"to 


of  the  Paganini  apparatus  is  provided  with  a  graduated  scale  in  millimetres  and 
tenths  of  millimetres,  in  order  that  this  length  may  be  taken  with  precision.  It 
is  determined  once  for  all  at  the  beginning  of  work,  by  bringing  into  the  focal  plane 
distant  points  and  making  a  series  of  observations  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  mean 
value  approximating  the  true  one.  With  the  help  of  the  graduated  scale  it  is  easy 
to  keep  this  value  constant  in  all  the  perspectives  obtained  during  the  survey. 
Paganini  calls  this  value  the  "  indicated  focal  length,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
one  determined  afterwards  at  home  for  the  perspectives  on  paper,  which  serve 
for  the  actual  construction  of  the  map.  For  further  particulars  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  hand-book  mentioned  above.  This  factor  is  mo.st  important  because 
it  establishes  the  relation  between  the  dimensions  of  the  objects  and  those  of  the 
corresponding  images  on  the  perspectives.  It  must  be  determined  therefore  with 
the  greatest  care  and,  when  necessary,  corrected  by  calculations  before  setting  to 
work  on  the  survey. 

Another  element  which  must  be  established  upon  the  spot  is  the  orientation 
of  the  perspective :  that  is,  the  horizontal  angle  made  by  the  optical  axis  of  the 
camera  (in  other  words,  the  perpendicular  line  from  the  \-iew-point  to  the 
perspective)  with  the  direction  to  a  previously  determined  point  in  the  field  of 
operations ;  or,  failing  this,  the  azimuth  of  the  optical  axis,  given  by  a  compass 
attached  to  the  apparatus.  The  outdoor  work,  therefore,  is  reduced  to  the  following 
steps  :  (1)  The  adjustment  of  the  instrument  ;  (2)  the  rectification  of  the  level 
or  of  the  verticality  of  the  axis  of  rotation  ;  (3)  the  execution  of  the  panorama 
(preferably  in  the  first  perspective  intersecting  with  the  vertical  wire  some  signal 
point  or  conspicuous  point  previously  fixed,  in  order  to  orientate  the  panorama 
with  as  great  precision  as  possible) ;  and  (4)  the  observations  of  zenith  and  azimuth 
— or  of  the  latter  alone,  as  in  the  case  of  the  apparatus  used  by  the  expedition — 
of  the  surrounding  trigonometrical  points  necessary  to  fix  the  position  of  the 
station,  with  the  addition  at  most  of  certain  conspicuous  points  which  may  later 
be  of  value  as  reference  points  for  locating  other  stations  in  cases  where  geodetic 
points  are  unavailable. 

II.— Description  of  the  .\pparatus. 

Paganini  has  invented  various  types  of  photogrammetric  apparatus  for  the 
use  of  the  Italian  Military  Geographical  Institute.  They  are  manufactured  by 
the  Galileo  Company,  of  Florence.  However,  when  the  expedition  -n-ished  to  furnish 
itself  with  an  instrument,  this  firm  had  only  one  on  hand,  a  model  of  1897,  arranged 
by  Comm.  Paganini  for  surveys  on  the  scale  of  1  :  50,000  and  1  :  100,000  in 
Erithrea.  This  model,  however,  though  less  in  weight,  bulk  and  price,  and 
possessing  the  greatest  simplicity  and  ease  of  manipulation,  is  not  altogether 
adapted  for  work  in  very  high  mountains.  We  had  to  content  ourselves  with  it, 
none  the  less,  as  the  time  was  too  short  for  the  construction  of  a  new  instrument. 


378  Appendix  A. 

Paganini  has  recently  invented  a  marvellously  ingenious  one,  which  unites  all  the 
advantages  I  have  mentioned  with  that  of  the  hijihcr  degree  of  precision  possessed 
by  the  model  furnished  with  the  vertical  circle,  which  was  an  earlier  invention. 

The  pattern  of  1897  has  a  short  focal  length  ( 18  centimetres)  and  takes  plates  18  by 
24  centimetres  (7  by  9^  inches),  with  the  larger  side  horizontal  in  order  to  take 
in  the  entire  horizon  with  an  equipment  of  six  plates.  It  may  be  employed  success- 
fully in  Erithrea,  and  has  given  brilliant  results  in  Russian  work  in  Transbaikalia 
and  Transcaucasia,  where  the  district  is  le.ss  rough  and  the  differences  of  level  le.ss 
pronounced  than  in  the  Alps  and  the  Himalaya.  But  in  the  photogrammetric 
work  executed  on  the  Baltoro  and  Godwin  Austen  glaciers  the  panoramic  views 
<!ould  not  all  include  the  highest  peaks,  as  was,  of  course,  desirable,  because  the 
vertical  dimension  of  the  plates  was  too  limited  to  embrace  the  enormous  difference 
of  height  between  the  stations  and  the  surrounding  summits.  Moreover,  the 
inistrument  was  not  furnished  with  the  vertical  circle  and  telescope,  as  in  the  other 
Paganini  models ;  thus  the  bearings  to  the  most  important  points  had  to  be  taken 
by  means  of  the  vertical  wire  as  seen  through  the  ground  glass;  and  others,  as  also 
the  heights  of  the  points,  had  to  be  determined  at  home  by  the  co-ordinates  x  and 
y  of  their  images  measured  on  the  perspectives.  These  facts  simplified  the  outdoor 
work  very  much,  but  increased  the  labour  afterwards  in  obtaining  the  data  for 
the  construction  of  the  map.  Undoubtedly  this  apjjaratus  enables  the  work  to 
be  done  very  quickly  on  the  mountains,  and  reduces  to  a  minimum  the  time  spent 
by  the  operator  while  exposed  to  di.scomfort  and  bad  weather.  He  must  note  the 
indispensable  data.  These  are  recorded  in  a  field  book,  together  with  such 
subsidiary  observations  as  sketches  to  facilitate  the  locating  of  the  points  in  the 
panoramas,  names,  routes  followed,  time  of  exposure  and  other  miscellaneous 
information.  The  apparatus  has  also  the  great  advantage  of  maintaining  unaltered 
for  a  long  time   the  adjustments  made  before  beginning  work  —  a  fact  which 

-contributes  much  to  the  success  of  the  observations.  A  brief  description  of  the 
apparatus  will  make  this  plainer. 

It  consists  of  a  rigid  camera,  made  of  aluminium,  in  form  a  right  prism,  the 
base  of  which  is  an  i.sosceles  trapezium.  The  back  of  the  camera,  which  is  per- 
pendicularly placed  upon  the  largest  of  the  parallel  sides  of  the  trapezium,  consists 

-of  a  frame  holding  the  ground  glass  or  the  sensitive  plate.  The  front  of  the  camera 
has  fixed  at  its  centre  a  tube,  inside  which  runs  another  tube  adjustable  by  means 
of  a  screw  with  a  millimetre  thread.  To  this  the  lens  is  fixed.  A  graduated  scale 
in  millimetres,  which  has  as  origin  the  focal  plane — that  is  the  surface  upon  which 
the  images  are  received — is  marked  externally  along  the  fixed  tube,  while  to  the 
movable  tube  carrying  the  lens  is  attached  a  ring  with  a  sharp  edge  which  comes 
into  contact  with  the  fixed  tube.  Thus,  turning  the  inner  tube  in  order  to  move 
the  lens  backward  and  forward  causes  the  edge  of  the  ring  to  cut  the  graduated 

.scale,  and  thus  serves  as  fiducial  line  or  line  of  collimation,  indicating  on  the  scale 


Photogrammetric  Survey. 


379 


itself  the  distance  of  the  lens  from  the  focal  plane.     The  bevelled  edge  of  the  ring 

is  divided  into  ten  equal  parts  in  order  to  read  upon  it  the  di\isions  of  the  movable 

tube — in  other  words,  the  tenths  of  the  thread  of  the  screw.     This,  added  to  the 

whole  number  of  millimetres  read  on  the  fixed  tube,  gives  in  millimetres  and  tenths 

of  millimetres  the  distance  of  the  second  nodal  point  of  the  lens  from  the  focal 

plane.       This  value,  the  "  principal  indicated 

focal  length,"  is  determined  at  the  beginning 

of    the    campaign,    and    in    all    subsequent 

operations  care  must  be  taken  that  the  line  of 

collimation  of  the  tube  carrying  the  lens  is  so 

adjusted  as  to  give  always  the  same  value.     This 

was  carefully  determined  upon  the  apparatus 

of  the  expedition  before  leaving  Srinagar,  and 

gave  a  result  of  180  "3  millimetres. 

The  objective  is  a  Zeiss  ana.stigmatic  and 

belongs   to  a  special   series  of   wide   angulars 

for    photogrammetric    work.      With    a    small 

diaphragm  we  obtain  a  clear  image   40  centi- 
metres in  diameter  ;    xvith  the  f-3.5  diaphragm 

it  produces  a  clear  image  free  from  distortions 

upon  a  plate  of  20  by  26  centimetres.     Thus 

the  plate  18  by  24  centimetres  used  with  this 

camera  took  very  clear  images  over  its  entire 

surface,  even  when  a  large  aperture  diaphragm 

was  employed;  while  the  luminosity  is  so  great 

that  it  is  better  to  use  plates  of  only  medium 

rapidity,  or,  better   still,  orthochromatic   ones, 
as  we  did. 

The  perspectives  thus  obtained  have  a  horizontal  field  of  67°  and  a  vertical  one 
of  54°.  In  this  way,  with  six  perspectives  with  a  displacement  of  the  optical  axis 
of  the  camera  about  the  vertical  axis  of  the  apparatus  of  60°  for  each  of  them,  a 
panorama  is  obtained  which  comprises  the  whole  horizon,  plus  a  narrow  vertical 
band— a  horizontal  field  of  3°  30'  between  each  one  and  the  next.  This  vertical 
band  in  excess  is  indispensable,  to  ascertain  the  correctness  of  the  panorama,  to 
determine  the  distance  of  the  point  of  view  from  the  perspectives,  and  to  join  the 
positives  accurately  to  one  another  in  order  to  form  the  panorama.  As  the  vertical 
field  is  D4°,  one  can  measure  from  the  perspectives  and  vertical  angles  up  to 
27°.  Owing  to  the  enormous  differences  in  level  with  which  the  expedition  had 
to  contend,  a  larger  vertical  field  would  have  been  more  advantageous.  In  the 
new  apparatus  of  Comm.  Paganini  it  is  possible  to  adjust  the  camera  so  as  to  have 
-the  larger  dimension  of  the  plate  (24  cm.)  run  vertically,  giving  angles  of  height  or 


PAGAXEfl   PHOTOGRAMMETRIC   APPARATUS, 
1897   MODEL. 


380  Appendix  A. 

depression  up  to  33°  30'.  To  make  the  entire  circle  of  the  horizon  eight  plates 
would  be  necessary,  with  a  horizontal  displacement  of  45°  of  the  optical  axis, 
giving  a  vertical  band  of  4°  30'  between  each  two  contiguous  pictures.  The 
new  instrument,  being  capable  of  reduction  to  telescope  and  being  furnished  with 
the  vertical  circle,  can,  even  without  the  reversible  movement  I  have  described, 
take  the  angle  of  peaks  whose  summits  fall  outside  the  upper  margin  of  the  plate. 
This  arrangement,  too,  would  have  been  very  useful  in  the  construction  of  the 
map. 

In  all  the  Paganini  apparatus  the  optic  axis  of  the  lens  is  fixed  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  image.  The  intersection  of  the  above  axis  with 
this  plane  is  marked  photographically  by  the  intersection  at  right  angles  of  two 
very  thin  silver  hairs  stretched  before  the  ground  glass  on  the  back  of  the  camera 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  easily  withdrawn  or  replaced  in  case  of  breakage. 
The  horizontal  silver  hair,  once  adjusted,  serves,  as  I  have  said,  to  indicate  the 
horizon  line  upon  the  photographic  perspective.  Below  the  camera  are  three  arms 
bent  at  right  angles,  one  anterior  and  the  others  posterior.  Each  has  a  hole  in 
its  end,  through  which  passes  an  adjustable  .shaft  fixed  perpendicularly  to  the 
movable  plate  or  alidad  of  the  horizontal  circle.  The  camera  can  be  fixed  rigidly 
at  the  required  position  upon  the  alidad  by  means  of  nuts  and  bolts  screwed  on 
to  the  shafts.  This  position  remains,  if  possible,  invariable  throughout  all  the 
outdoor  work.  Its  stability  is  very  important,  since  the  said  position  must  satisfy 
the  requirement  that  the  plane  containing  the  optic  axis  of  the  camera  and  the 
axis  indicating  the  horizon  of  the  station  is  exactly  horizontal  as  soon  as  the 
rotation-axis  of  the  ahdad  or  of  the  instrument  has  been  vertically  disposed.  Thus 
the  only  adjustment  to  be  made  of  the  instrument  in  the  different  stations  is  to 
correct  the  level  placed  on  the  alidad,  at  the  same  time  arranging  vertically  the 
rotation-axis  of  the  apparatus. 

The  azimuthal  circle  of  the  apparatus  has  a  diameter  of  14  centimetres  and  its 
edge  is  graduated  from  0°  to  360°,  each  degree  being  subdivided  into  two  equal 
parts,  each  of  which  embraces  30'.  The  vernier  is  fastened  to  the  movable  plate 
or  alidad,  and  permits  us  to  read  the  minutes  and  to  appreciate  even  the  30".  In 
addition  to  the  three  shafts  and  a  level,  the  alidad  is  provided  with  a  magnifying 
lens  to  use  with  the  vernier  and  a  regulating-screw  to  use  for  the  small  adjustments 
of  collimation.  The  verticality  of  the  rotation-axis  of  the  instrument  is  attained 
by  means  of  three  levelling-screws,  which  pass  through  the  top  of  the  tripod  and 
hold  the  horizontal  circle.  This  is  fixed  upon  the  tripod  by  means  of  a  clamping- 
screw  with  a  spring  and  a  handle,  which,  passing  through  the  head  of  the  tripod 
from  bottom  to  top,  is  screwed  into  a  movable  .support  shaped  like  a  half-sphere, 
fastened  by  means  of  a  ring  under  the  horizontal  circle. 

A  compass  of  the  Dixey  or  the  Smalcalder  type  is  mounted  upon  the  top  of 
the  camera.     It  can  be  so  adjusted  that  the  vertical  visual  plane  of  its  bearings 


Photogrammetric  Survey.  381 

coincides  with  the  direction  of  the  optic  axis  of  the  camera.  Thus  it  becomes 
possible  to  use  the  compass  to  orientate  the  panorama  when  it  is  not  possible  to 
aim  at  trigonometric  points  or  at  any  others  of  which  the  position  is  known.  The 
tripod  may  be  taken  to  pieces ;  each  foot  is  in  two  parts  *  which  can  be  solidly 
fastened  together  when  the  apparatus  is  set  up.  We  have  seen  that  the  most 
important  adjustment  consists  in  fixing  the  camera  upon  the  alidad  in  such  a  way 
that  the  plane  containing  the  optical  axis  and  the  silver  hair  which  traces  the 
horizon-line  upon  the  perspectives  are  perpendicular  to  the  rotation-axis  of  the 
instrument ;  and  reciprocally,  when  this  rotation-axis  is  adjusted  vertically  the 
plane  of  the  optical  axis  will  be  horizontal.  In  the  other  apparatus  of  Paganini 
this  result  is  attained  by  means  of  the  telescope  of  the  acclimeter,  which  may  be 
inverted  (pattern  1884),  or  by  the  same  camera  obscura  reduced  to  a  reversible 
telescope  (pattern  1889).  In  the  model  employed  by  the  expedition  the  horizontal 
adjustment  is  made  as  follows  : — 

The  three  arms  of  the  camera  are  first  placed  at  approximately  the  same  height 
upon  the  movable  plate  by  turning  the  lower  screws  with  the  pins  belonging  to 
them,  having  previously  raised  the  upper  ones  in  order  to  give  free  motion  to  the 
arms  on  their  respective  shafts.  Then  looking  through  the  ground  glass  of  the 
camera  under  the  black  cloth,  and  moving  to  right  or  left  and  up  or  down  as 
necessary,  by  adjusting  the  screws,  distant  points  are  brought  to  coincide  with  the 
point  of  intersection  of  the  wires,  until  by  moving  the  camera  in  both  directions 
around  the  rotation-axis,  a  point  is  made  to  run  all  along  the  horizontal  thread 
from  one  extreme  to  another,  without  passing  above  or  under  the  thread.  If  the 
rotation-axis  is  vertical,  this  coincidence  of  a  point  with  the  horizontal  thread  in 
its  whole  length  can  only  take  place  when  the  plane  of  the  optical  axis  and  the  wire 
which  traces  the  horizon-line  on  the  perspective  are  horizontal.  If  the  plane  is 
not  horizontal,  and  accordingly  the  plane  of  the  ground  glass  is  not  vertical,  one 
observes  that  in  moving  the  camera  to  right  or  left  the  image  gradually  diverges 
from  the  horizontal  wire,  describing  the  segment  of  a  hyperbola  either  above  or 
below  the  wire,  according  as  the  point  cited  is  situated  above  or  below  the  horizon. 

In  practice  the  followino;  method  will  secure  the  horizontal  adjustment  of  the 
wire  and  the  plane  of  the  optical  axis : — 

First  turn  the  screws  which  support  the  posterior  arms  of  the  camera,  operating 
in  such  a  way  that  by  revolving  the  camera  all  the  way  through  its  field  some 
distant  point  which  is  covered  by  the  wire  on  one  of  its  ends  coincides  with  the 
other  end  of  the  wire.  Thus  the  horizontality  of  the  wire  will  be  fixed.  If  this 
point  is  not  on  the  horizon,  it  ^\•ill  be  seen  to  describe  a  curve  during  the  revolving 
of  the  camera,  passing  above  or  below  the  intersection  of  the  wires  according  to 
the  inclination  of  the  optic  axis  dowiiwards  or  upwards.  The  vertex  of  the  h}-per- 
bola  ■^^•ill  be  found  upon  the  vertical  thread,  and  it  will  be  easy  to  estimate  the 
'  In  the  original  instrument  the  feet  are  in  one  piece. 


382  Appendix  A. 

convexity  of  the  said  curve.  Then  the  screw  controlling  the  anterior  arm  of  the 
camera  will  be  turned,  and  the  latter  raised  or  lowered  until  the  image  of  the  point 
is  brought  to  coincide  with  the  intersection  of  the  wires.  By  making  observations 
of  successive  points  continually  approaching  the  horizon,  the  right  position  will 
soon  be  arrived  at,  when  all  the  screws  are  tightened  in  order  rigidly  to  maintain  it. 

III. — Calculations  and  Construction  of  the  Map. 

The  panoramic  view  obtained  under  the  above  conditions  gives  an  image  of 
all  the  field  seen  from  the  station.  Together  with  other  panoramic  views  obtained 
in  like  manner  at  suitable  stations,  it  gives  the  elements  necessary  for  the  execution, 
on  any  scale,  of  the  map  of  that  tract  of  land  which  they  represent.  Each 
perspective  of  the  series  is  considered  separately  in  constructing  the  map.  The 
focal  distance  is  equal  for  all,  and  all  are  furnished  with  the  horizon-line  and  the 
line  of  the  vertical  plane,  the  latter  containing  the  visual  point  and  the  principal 
point  of  the  perspectives. 

Paper  positives  are  used  for  making  the  survey,  it  being  possible  to  allow  for 
the  alteration  undergone  by  one  single  quality  of  paper  and  to  use  a  focal  length 
corrected  accordingly.  This  focal  length  is  obtained  before  proceeding  to  the 
survey.  It  is  independent  of  the  "  indicated  focal  length,"  and  is  called  the  "  real 
focal  length."  All  the  directions  to  the  points  represented  in  each  picture  may 
be  easily  determined  by  means  of  the  co-ordinates  x  and  y  of  their  images  referred 
to  the  perpendicular  axes  traced  on  the  picture  itself,  through  the  following  very 
simple  equations : 

tawj  (o'=    Y  (1) 

where  /  is  the  real  distance  of  the  view-point  from  the  perspective,  the  orientation 
of  which  to'  is  known,  being  an  element  obtained  at  the  station  ;  and  oj'  is  the  angle 
made  by  the  horizontal  direction  to  a  point  {x,  y)  of  the  perspective  with  the 
perpendicular  to  it  from  the  view-point. 

tang  a    = j — ,  (2) 

where  «  is  the  angle  that  the  direction  to  the  image  of  the  point  observed  makes 
with  its  projection  upon  the  horizon,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  horizontal  direction 
of  the  point  itself.     But  also  it  is 

tany  v.    =  ^, 

where  L  is  the  difference  of  level  between  the  point  considered  and  the  station  and 
D  the  horizontal  distance  between  these  points.    Hence 


Photogrammetric  Survey.  383 

After  having  obtained  by  foimula  (1)  the  bearings  of  the  various  points  useful 
for  the  survey,  which  are  visible  on  the  panoramic  \iews  taken  from  two  or  more 
stations,  the  position  of  these  may  be  obtained  by  intersection. 

By  formula  (2)  we  get  their  angular  elevation  ;  then,  having  the  distance  and 
the  difference  of  level  between  the  points  and  the  station,  by  means  of  tables  in 
use  at  the  Military  Geographical  Institute,  one  can  finally  obtain  directly  the 
vertical  difference  by  means  of  formula  (3). 

But  this  is  a  very  long  method,  and  in  order  to  solve  the  equations  given  above 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  mimerical  value  of  the  co-ordinates  x  and  y  and  the 
distance  D.  These  numerical  values  are  very  useful  when  the  survey  is  on  a  very 
large  scale,  as  in  civil  or  military  operations ;  whenever  it  is  a  question  of  data 
for  finding  points  on  the  ground.  But  they  are  superfluous  for  a  topographical 
map  on  a  small  scale,  as  in  the  construction  of  the  map  these  values  would  have 
in  any  case  to  be  reproduced  graphically. 

IV. — Simplifying  the  Survey  by  means  of  Special  Drafting  Instruments. 

By  the  Paganiiii  photogrammetric  method  adojJted  by  our  Military  Geographical 
Institute,  the  position  of  the  points  and  their  elevation  can  be  taken  mechanically 
and  rapidly  by  means  of  special  drafting  instruments,  the  construction  of  which 
is  based  upon  the  above  formulae,  and  upon  which  the  distance  D  and  the  co- 
ordinates X  and  y  are  transferred  directly  with  the  compass  and  upon  the  scale  of 
the  map,  making  it  unnecessary  to  know  the  numerical  value  of  these  measurements. 

The  construction  proceeds  in  the  following  manner  :  the  trigonometric  points 
are  fixed  at  the  desired  scale  by  means  of  their  rectilinear  co-ordinates.  Then  with 
the  special  instrument  called  by  Paganini  "  rapporlatore  ad  on'gine  variabile," 
the  photogrammetric  stations  are  put  in  place,  as  well  as  whatever  other  special 
points  have  been  selected  for  the  purpose  of  adding  to  the  points  of  reference  in 
a  number  proportionate  to  the  scale  of  the  survey.  With  this  instrument  the 
various  directions  can  be  traced  directly  on  the  transparent  paper  just  as  they 
were  read  at  the  time  of  the  outdoor  operation  on  the  horizontal  circle  of  the 
photogrammetric  apparatus  or  the  theodolite.  With  the  transparency  thus  made 
are  placed  the  stations  and  the  directions  from  them  to  the  other  images  necessary 
to  determine  further  points  of  reference  in  addition  to  the  trigonometric  ones. 
With  this  instrument  it  is  possible  to  assume  any  one  of  the  bearings  observed  as 
origin  of  the  horizontal  circuit  and  to  proceed  by  degrees,  by  means  of  the  alidad, 
to  the  other  readings.  In  this  way  is  obviated  the  necessity  of  all  the  mathematical 
calculations  to  reduce  to  zero  the  readings  made  out  of  doors,  as  is  the  case  when 
the  ordinary  finders  are  used- — a  very  long  operation  when  there  is  a  large  number 
of  points  to  be  located. 

When  the  stations  and  all  the  points  intersected  by  them  have  been  put  on 
paper,  we  proceed  to  the  determination  of  the  secondary  points,  or  detail,  all 


384 


Ai)|)endix  A. 


chosen  beforehand  for  the  purpose  of  the  draft.  After  the  various  elements  of 
the  panoramic  views  have  been  corrected,  a  selection  is  made  from  them  (taking 
them  two  by  two,  at  contiguous  stations)  of  points  useful  to  the  survey  ;  either 
for  the  purpose  of  tracing  contours,  or  for  determining  the  lie  of  various  ridges, 
the  direction  of  streams,  the  limits  of  glaciers,  bases  of  rocks,  &c.  The  operation 
is  regulated  for  the  number  of  points  chosen  according  to  the  scale  that  is  desired, 
the  precision  required,  and  the  time  at  the  disposition  of  the  operator.  All  these 
points  have  been  registered  in  the  notebook,  according  to  the  station  from  which 
they  were  taken,  and  marked  on  the  relative  panoramic  ^^ews  with  numbers  or 
letters  written  in  red  ink. 


\ 


PAGASrNI    DRAFTING    INSTRUMENTS    USED   IN    CONSTRUCTING   THE    MAP. 


The  tracing  on  the  design  of  all  directions  to  these  secondary  points  used  to 
be  a  very  long  and  monotonous  operation  and  far  from  accurate.  The  modern 
process  is  quick  and  simple,  thanks  to  a  special  drafting  instrument  based  upon  the 
formula  (1)  c^uoted  above,  and  called  the  "  grajjhical  .sector  for  the  directions  to 
secondary  points  of  the  perspective."  By  its  means  the  horizontal  projection  of 
each  perspective  is  traced  successively  upon  the  design,  carefully  orientated,  with 
its  i^rincipal  point  at  the  effective  distance  from  the  station  point,  in  such  a  way 
that,  by  transferring  with  the  compass  the  abscissae  of  the  various  points  taken 
on  the  "siews  to  a  scale  cut  on  a  metal  ruler,  the  corresponding  horizontal  directions 
may  be  easily  drawn  by  means  of  a  movable  plate  (or  alidad)  furnished  with  a  metal 
ruler,  moving  about  the  station  point. 

With  another  instrument,  specially  designed  for  drawing  the  elevations,  based 
upon  formidse  (2)  and  (3),  differences  of  level  are  obtainable,  and  therefore  also 
the  elevations  of  the  stations  and  of  the  secondary  points  of  the  perspectives. 
When  the  apparatus  is  provided  with  vertical  circle  and  telescope  the  angular 
elevations  of  the  trigonometrical  points  are  read  directly  on  the  ground.  In  this 
case  one  obtains  the  elevation  directly  from  reading  the  instrument,  by  means  of 


PhotogramnK'tric  Survey.  385 

|the  distance  on  the  design  between  the  station  point  and  the  trigonometrical  point 
I  of  which  the  altitude  is  known  and  from  the  station  point  to  the  observed  angle  a  . 
But  without  the  vertical  circle  the  determination  of  the  heights  depends  upon 
the  value  of  the  abscissae  and  the  ordinates  of  the  trigonometric  points  of  the 
perspectives,  the  height  of  which  is  taken  with  the  compass  on  the  perspectives 
themselves,  likewise  their  graphic  distances  ;  so  that  the  differences  of  level  between 
them  and  the  station  point,  and  also  the  height  of  the  latter,  may  be  read  directly 
upon  the  instrument.  In  the  same  manner,  once  the  height  of  the  stations  is 
obtained,  the  difference  of  level  is  determined,  and  therefore  the  height  of  the 
secondary  points  of  the  perspective  considered  useful  to  complete  the  survey.  As 
in  the  case  of  all  the  other  methods,  corrections  must,  of  course,  be  made  of  all 
these  apparent  differences  of  level,  on  account  of  the  refraction  of  the  light  and  the 
roundness  of  the  earth.     Tables  compiled  for  the  purpose  are  used. 

V. — Topographical  Work  of  the  Expedition  and  Construction  of  the  Survey. 

In  a  little  more  than  a  month — in  other  words,  from  May  25th  to  July  2nd — the 
expedition  executed  twenty-two  photogrammetric  stations,  using  106  negatives. 
On  account  of  the  limited  number  of  plates  at  our  disposal,  not  all  the  panoramic 
views  embraced  the  entke  horizon.  The  region  surveyed  includes  the  Concordia 
amphitheatre  of  the  Baltoro  glacier,  the  Godwin  Austen  glacier  up  to  AVindy  Gap 
and  the  Savoia  glacier,  which  flows  about  the  western  side  of  K-.^  It  was  a  pity 
that  lack  of  plates  prevented  our  extending  the  survey  southward,  upon  the  arm 
of  the  Baltoro  as  far  as  Bride  Peak,  the  ascent  of  which  was  one  of  the  aims  of  the 
expedition.  The  work  was  supplemented,  it  is  true, by  compass  and  tacheometer 
and  with  barometrical  stations ;  but  among  the  innumerable  peaks  of  such  strange 
appearance  the  eye  becomes  easily  confused  in  passing  from  one  station  to  another. 
The  numerous  sketches  taken  on  the  spot  did  not  give  all  the  information  really 
desirable  for  map-drawing,  and  are  certainly  inadequate  to  give  all  the  characteristic 
detail  of  this  rugged,  broken  and  largely  inaccessible  region.  Bella's  numerous 
photographs  and  panoramic  views  were,  on  the  other  hand,  of  great  assistance 
in  making  the  design,  as  some  of  them  were  taken  from  high  and  commanding 
elevations  and  under  conditions  makmg  it  possible  to  determine  approximately  the 
photogrammetric  elements, so  that  they  served, if  not  for  measurements  of  altitude, 
at  least  for  sufficiently  exact  azimuthal  directions.  With  this  end  in  view.  Sella 
marked  his  stations  by  setting  up  cairns  visible  from  the  photogrammetric  stations, 
so  that  they  could  be  included  in  the  network  of  stations  of  reference  or  geodetic 
poijats  jipon  which  the  survey  was  based. 

It  is  possible  that  instead  of  glass  plates  we  might  have  used  films,  which  are 
so  much  more  convenient  because  of  their  small  bulk  and  weight.  Comm.  Paganini, 
however,  does  not  consider  their  use  advisable,  as  no  good  results  have  been 

•  Sec  tlic  heliotype  reproduction  of  tlie  photogrammetric  panorama  (S)  given  on  a  natural 
scale  a    an  example  of  the  work  done. 

(9221)  2  B 


386 


Appendix  A. 


obtained  with  them  in  three  previous  campaigns.  They  easily  undergo  changes 
in  the  celluloid,  owing  to  their  sensitiveness  to  heat,  cold,  moisture  and  the 
chemicals  used  in  developing  ;  so  that  the  image  varies  in  a  way  which  would  not 
be  noticeable  in  ordinary  photographic  work,  but  which  is  sufficient  to  cause  errors 
in  the  measurements,  which  must  be  corrected  to  the  tenth  and  hundredth  of  a 
millimetre. 

The  Military  Geographical  Institute  was  authorized  to  execute  the  topographical 
representation  of  the  region  surveyed  by  the  expedition.  It  confided  the  work 
to  Comm.  Pio  Paganmi.  The  scale  chosen  for  the  map  was  1  :  100,000.  The  work 
proved  somewhat  arduous,  especially  at  the  beginning,  on  account  of  the  deficiency 
of  well-defined  geodetic  points,  which  necessitated  referring  the  survey  to  several 
conspicuous  points  determined  by  intersection — in  other  words,  concluded  from 
vertices  of  the  secondary  triangulation  executed  for  Kashmir,  which  is,  in  its  turn . 
connected  with  the  North-western  Himalayan  series  of  the  primary  triangulation 
of  India.  A  double  chain  of  triangles  (quadrilateral  and  diagonal)  of  the  secondary 
triangulation  of  Kashmir  extends  along  the  course  of  the  Indus  from  south-east  to 
north-west,  from  a  point  very  near  its  sources  to  as  far  as  Bkardu,  where  it  bends 
southwards  in  order  to  join  up  with  the  main  system  of  the  Indian  survey.  From 
the  vertices  of  this  portion  of  the  trigonometric  chain  (Upper  Indus  triangulation) 
were  intersected  the  highest  summits  of  the  Karakoram,  including  the  two  Masher- 
brums,  Peak  No.  8  or  Bride  Peak,  Peak  No.  9  or  Hidden  Peak,  Nos.  10,  11  and  12 
of  the  Gasherbrum  range,  and  lastly  and  highest  of  all  Peak  No.  1.3  or  K- — all  the.se 
summits  surrounding  the  tract  which  was  to  be  mapped.  But  we  must  consider 
that  these  points  were  intersected  at  distances  of  50  and  100  miles  with  cross- 
bearings  meeting  at  acute  angles  and  taken  from  relatively  low  points,  while  there 
were  no  signal  stations  to  mark  with  precision  the  points  aimed  at,  and  thus  it 
was  not  possible  to  determine  their  position  otherwise  than  approximately. 
However,  the  following  table  shows  the  elements  of  the  points  which  were  used 
for  the  purpose  in  question.  It  was  not  always  easy  to  recognize  them  as  they 
appeared  on  the  perspectives.  They  were  measured  also  with  the  tacheometer 
from  several  stations,  as  is  shown  on  the  sketch  of  the  triangulation. 


Points  otjserved. 

Latituiles  N. 

Longitudes  E.G. 
(old  detenn.) 

Height. 

Height. 

No.  of  the  deter- 
mined visuals. 

Difference   per 
mile  in   com- 
mon  siiles   of 
triangles. 

Posi- 
tion. 

Height. 

Masheiljrum  East 
Peak  No.  8  :  Bride  Peak 
Peak  No.  9  :  Hidden  Pk. 
Peak  No.  10"!   Ga.sher-     ' 
Peak  No.  1 1  ]■     brum    ' . 

Peak  No.  12         

Peak  No.  13:  K= 

35°38'36'-4 
35°  36'  44"-0 
35°  43'  30"-0 
35°  45'  31"-0 
35°  45'  36  "0 
35°  45'  38"-0 
35°52'55"-0 

76  90'  57" -9 
76'36'50"-0 
76°  44'  15"0 
76°41'42"-0 
76°41'00"-0 
76°39'29"-0 
76°  33'  18" -0 

feet 
2.5,660 
25,110 
26,470 
26,360 
26,090 
26,000 
28,250 

metres 

7,821-3 
7,653-6 
8,068-5 
8,034  6 
7,952-3 
7,924-9 
8,610-7 

9 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
10 

7 
4 
4 
2 
2 
2 
9 

feet 
0-4 
1-5 
1-6 

2-4 
2-0 
0-8 
2-7 

Photogrammetric  Survey. 


387 


We  see  that  the  figures  most  to  be  trusted  are  those  for  Masherbrum  East  ; 
the  other  Peak,  or  South-east,  was  omitted  because  it  was  invisible  from  the  region 
surveyed,  being  masked  by  the  first,  which  is  only  about  1,000  feet  from  it.  The 
tract  surveyed  was  comprised  within  a  square  formed  by  Masherbrum, Bride  Peak, 
Hidden  Peak  and  K-.  Thus  a  point  was  chosen  for  the  origin  of  the  rectilinear 
co-ordinates  which  was  the  approximate  centre  of  this  square — ^that  is  to  say,  about 
at  the  intersection  of  the  meridian  76°  35'  E.  with  the  parallel  35°  45'.  The 
graduation  of  the  longitude  in  the  final  survey  was  put  2'  30"  farther  east,  according 
to  the  correction  made  in  1877  to  the  longitude  of  Madras,  upon  which  are  based 
the  longitudes  of  the  triangulation  of  India. 

The  most  distant  point,  Masherbrum,  is  about  15  miles  from  the  origin  of  the 
co-ordinates  ;  as  the  origin  itself  has  the  latitude  of  35  °  45',  nearly  the  same  as  the 
southern  end  of  Italy,  the  elements  for  the  calculation  of  the  rectilinear  co-ordinates 
are  already  to  be  found  in  the  appropriate  tables.  ^     They  result  from  the  formvdse : 

.'■  =  /„  cos  L  A  P" 

y  =  IL^  L"  +  ///„  (A  F'f 

in  which  L  is  the  latitude  and  P  the  longitude  of  the  point ;  /„,  //„  and  Ilia  are 
constants  which  depend  upon  the  origin  of  the  co-ordinates  of  latitude  L  and 
longitude  P.  The  value  of  these  constants  is  obtained  from  the  aforesaid  tables 
and  calculated  with  the  Bessel  elli^Jsoid  elements  : 

I  =  N  sin  1" 

II  =  p  sin  1" 

111=  \-Ndn2Lsvn?  1" 
4 

N  and  p  are  respectively  the  great  normal  and  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the 
meridian  ellipsis  for  latitude  L.  For  the  points  before  mentioned,  with  the  relative 
geographical  co-ordinates  given  by  the  catalogue  contained  in  Vol.  YII  (Division  E, 
Group  I,  No.  13),  Triangulation  of  Kashmir,  the  following  rectilinear  co-ordinates 
were  obtained  : — 


Ma.slierbruiii  East    ... 

...     ,/■  = 

^    - 

21333-8 

(69992-8)    y  = 

=    - 

117960  (.38700-7) 

Bride  Peak 

„ 

-t- 

2768-1 

(  9081-7)     ,, 

- 

15285-0  (50147-6) 

Hidden  Peak 

„ 

+ 

1394G-2 

(45755-2)     „ 

- 

2757-4  (  9046-6) 

Gasherbrum   I. 

,, 

+ 

10097-6 

(33128-6)     „ 

-(- 

949-6  (  3U.5-5) 

II.        ... 

,, 

+ 

9042-5 

(29667-0)     „ 

-1- 

11140  (36548-5) 

,.       III. 

„ 

+ 

6756-7 

(22167-6)    „ 

+ 

1173-7  (38507-2) 

K-       

„ 

- 

2558-1 

(  8392-7)     „ 

+ 

14638-7  (48027-2) 

•  See  Istiluto  Geografico  Militare.     Istruzione  per  la  resoluzione  di  akitni  problemi  riguardanti 
e  rdazioni  di  posizione  fra  punti  dali  per  le  loro  coordinate  geografiche.     Florence,  Barbera,  1896. 
(9221)  2  B  2 


388 


Ap])enclix  A. 


Thus  it  was  possible  to  fix  the  above  points  on  the  drawing  on  the  scale  of 
1  :  100,000,  proceeding  afterwards  to  the  necessary  adjusting  by  means  of  the 
sides,  using  the  well-known  formula  : 


where  the  angle  i^  is  given  by  the  formula  : 

No  cos  Lq  AF' 
3n         A   //' 


tanff  <f)  = 


This  formula  may  also  be  used  for  distances  over  30  miles.  S  is  the  length  or 
side  unknown  :  Z,„  =  L„,  +  ^  w'here  Lm  is  the  mean  latitude  and  e  a  little  correc- 
tion omitted  in  case  of  distances  under  25  miles.  N„  and  />„  are  the  principal 
radii  of   the  ellipsoid,  in    correspondence  with  latitude  L„.     Thus  were  obtained 


the  following  distances  : — 


K 


Mii.slierbrum  Ea-st 
,,   -  liride  Peak 
„    - Gasbeil)rum  I 

„    -Hidden  Peak        

Hidden  Peak  -  JIaslierhniin  East 
„  „      -(Jasherhruin  III 

,,  „     -  Bride  Peak     ... 

.,  „      -Gasherbrum  II 


324240  lueti- 

es  (10(!377-9 

feet) 

3039.50   „ 

(  99721  1 

18641-0   „ 

(  61 1.58- 1 

239850   .. 

(  78690-9 

364180   ., 

(119481-6 

81971   „ 

(  26893-4 

1G7870   „ 

(  5.")07.')-4 

17559-0   ., 

(  57608-3 

The  circuits  of  the  horizon,  executed  from  difierent  .stations  and  transferred 
to  the  drawing  by  means  of  the  finder,  serve  also  to  fix  on  the  design  the  photo- 
grammetric  and  tacheometric  stations,  and  also  to  determine  tho.se  other  significant 
points  which  are  to  be  used  as  points  of  reference  for  further  stations  and  for  the 
orientation  of  the  perspectives.  This  was  indispensable,  for  the  photogrammetric 
stations  scattered  over  the  Savoia  and  Godwin  Austen  glaciers,  not  aU  of  which 
could  take  in  three  points  of  the  Indian  Triangulation,  could  by  this  means  be 
located  with  sufi&cient  exactness  on  the  drawing.^ 

Two  positives  were  printed  of  each  of  the  panoramic  views,  one  for  composing 
the  panoramas  themselves,  the  other  to  measure  with  the  compasses  the  co- 
ordinates of  the  points  useful  in  the  survey,  after  having  chosen  and  distingui.shed 
them  on  the  views.  The  effective  distance  of  the  perspective  view-point  was  then 
determined  on  the  unmounted  prints.  All  these  being  taken  under  the  same 
conditions  and  with  a  constant  indicated  focal  length,  and  the  same  quality  of  paper 
being  used  for  printing,  always  cut  the  same  way  of  the  fibre,  the  result  must  be 
a  constant  value  for  the  effective  distance,  in  all  the  printed  positives.  This  value 
is  determined  by  getting  the  mean   of  various  measurements  made  on  several 


*  See  the  sketch  of  the  triangulation,  whereon  are  marked  all  the  points  which  served  for 
the  construction  of  the  survey. 


Photograniinetric   Survey.  389 

perspectives  and  for  different  panorania.si.  The  focal  length  indicated  by  the 
lens  in  our  case  was  180  "S  millimetres,  and  the  true  focal  length  determined  at 
Florence  was  180  6  millimetres.  After  ha\'ing  chosen  and  marked  in  red  on  the 
perspectives  the  various  secondary  points  to  be  mapped,  and  transferred  their 
abscissae  upon  the  sector  in  accordance  with  the  directions  already  described,  and 
properly  orientated  on  the  drawing,  the  directions  to  the  said  points  of  the  various 
stations  are  traced,  and  by  intersection  their  position  in  the  survey  is  obtained. 
Some  300  points  were  determined  in  this  way. 

Finally,  in  the  same  way,  by  carrying  the  abscissae  and  ordinates  upon  the 
finder  for  altitudes  the  heights  of  the  said  points  were  determined  by  at  least  two 
derivations.  With  the  help  of  all  these  points  and  the  stations  and  references 
fixed  upon  the  panoramas,  it  was  possible  to  complete  the  map,  inserting  the 
details  and  forms  of  the  region — in  which  the  panoramas  were  of  the  greatest 
assistance. 

The  difficulty  of  the  ground,  the  scarcity  of  trigonometric  points,  the 
impossibility — owing  to  the  enormous  differences  of  level — of  accurately  sighting 
trigonometric  summits  unprovided  with  signals,  the  short  time  at  our  disposal, 
the  limited  number  of  photographic  plates,  all  this  prevented  us  from  gathering 
sufficient  elements  for  a  true  topographical  survey.  However,  we  may  feel  some 
satisfaction  over  the  result  achieved  under  such  conditions.  It  has  at  all  events 
sufficient  accuracy  to  serve  as  point  of  departure  for  other  explorers  making  a 
more  extended  survey  in  the  same  field. 

In  conclusion.  I  must  express  our  gratitude  to  Comni.  Paganini,  to  whose 
methods  and  whose  instruments  we  are  almost  wholly  indebted  for  the  work 
executed  on  the  spot,  and  to  whose  experience  and  assistance  we  owe  the  execution 
of  the  map.  My  zeal  to  make  known  an  admirable  topographical  method, 
remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  its  suitability  for  high  mountain  work,  has  led 
me  to  describe  it  in  considerable  detail.  For,  despite  the  fact  that  this  method  has 
been  emploj'ed  in  Italy,  with  the  best  results,  since  1876,  and  has  been  introduced 
also  in  certain  foreign  countries,  the  English  Royal  Geographical  Society  does  not 
mention  it,  even  in  its  most  recent  publications  {Hints  to  Travellers,  9th  ed.,  1906; 
and  Maps  and  Map  Making,  E.  A.  Reeves,  1910) ;  and,  in  fact,  considers  the 
application  of  photography  to  topography  to  have  a  very  limited  and  subordinate 
value.  The  June  number  of  the  Geog.  Jour.,  1911,  has  an  article  by  A.  0.  Wheeler, 
of  the  Topographical  Office  of  the  Canadian  Government,  in  which  full  justice  is 
rendered  to  the  photogrammetric  method,  and  which  will  no  doubt  contribute 
toward  making  it  better  known  in  England. 

1  For  description  of  this  determination  see  the  monograph  already  citfd  and  the  Manuale 
of  CoMM.  Pagaxdci. 


(9221)  -'  K  3 


Appendix  B. 


METEOROLOGICAL    DESCRIPTION 

AND 

ALTIMETRIC    CALCULATIONS 

From    Observations    made    by    the    Elxpeclitioii    of 
H.R.H.   THE    DUKE   OF    THE   ABRUZZI 

IN    THE 

KARAKORAM 

AND 

WESTERN    HIMALAYA. 


BY 
Prof.  DOMENICO  OMODEl. 


(9221)  i;  u  4 


Appendix  B. 


1.— LIST    OF    INSTRUMENTS    USED. 


The     expedition     was     equipped 
with    the    following    instruments 
for     making    the    more    impor- 
tant  meteorological  observations, 
especially    those    used    for    com- 
putmg  heights  : — 
I.  One    mercurial    Fortin     baro- 
meter,     No.      3314,       with 
graduated  scale  from  240  to 
520  millimetres. 
Id.  No.  3313,  with  graduated 
scale  from  240  to  520  milli- 
metres. 

Id.  No.  3312,  with  graduated 
scale  from  210  to  490  millimetres. 
Id.  No.  1,  with  graduated  scale  from  200  to  400  millimetres. 
II.  Two  aneroid  barometers  furnished  with  three  graduated  scales  for  altitudes 
to  29,000  feet. 
III.  One  hypsometer  with  three  pairs  of  thermometers  : — 
1st  from  58=  to  78°  in  tenths. 
2nd    „     65^  „  88° 
3rd     „     72=  „    102"  in  half-tenths. 
l\.  Two  pairs  of  thermometers  maxinmm  and  minimum  self-registering. 
V.  Four  mercurial  thermometers. 
VI.  Two  standard  thermometers. 

VII.  Four  thermometers  with  bulb  blackened  in  vacuum. 

All  the  above  instruments  were  verified  at  the  National  Physical  Laboratory 
at  Kew,  with  the  exception  of  the  hypsometers.  Of  these  the  pair  from  72°  to 
102°  had  already  been  used  on  the  Ruwenzori  expedition,  and  the  others  were 
manufactured  and  corrected  in  Geneva. 


394 


Appendix  B. 


The  correction  of  some  of  the  mercurial  Fortin  barometers  remained  uncertain 
for  lack  of  apparatus  with  which  to  compare  them  at  such  unusually  low  pressures  ; 
but  this  was  compensated  for  by  making  numerous  comparisons  under  low  pressures 
in  the  mountains.     In  this  way  it  was  possible  to  use  all  the  barometers. 

These  instruments,  in  consequence  of  their  special  construction,  are  very  fragile, 
and  unfortunately  the  damage  is  not  easily  discovered  by  external  marks,  so  that 
the  observations  may  be  very  erroneous  if  not  taken  with  great  caution.  It  is 
necessary  for  this  reason  to  submit  them  to  continual  comparison  in  order  to  give 
assurance  of  their  regular  working.  A  great  many  of  these  comparisons  were  made 
both  with  the  barometers  and  the  hypsometers — in  fact  every  time  the  opportunity 
arose — and  always  with  reference  to  No.  3314,  of  which  the  exact  correction  was 
known.     Especial  care  was  taken  to  preserve  this  barometer  from  deterioration. 

In  order  to  render  the  following  table  more  concise,  only  those  results  are  given 
which  were  obtained  from  the  various  series  of  comparisons,  some  of  which  were 
made  before  the  highest  ascents,  some  at  the  most  elevated  points  and  some  during 
the  descent. 


No. 


I. 
II. 


I. 
II. 


I. 
II. 


Dates  ol  comparison. 


Number  of 
observations. 


Extremes  of  pressure. 
mm. 


Correction, 
mm. 


Barometer  N.  3313. 


May  13tli,  20tli,  26tli,  27tli,  2!nli  ami 

June  2nil 
July  19lli,  20th,  23id  and  28th 


from  41409  to  .'J36-13 
„     393-90  „  471-13 


+  1-215 
+  1-205 


Mean      +  1-215 


May  20th 

July  23id  and  28tli 


Barometer  N.  3312. 

...I  3 

...I  3 


from  4(;8-99  to  4C9-32 
„      468-71  „  471 -.30 

Mean 


+  1-180 
+  1-040 


Barometer  N.  1. 
May  31st,  June  Ist,  6tli,  8th  and  13th  I  9 

July  8th,  9th  and  10th [  3 


from  399-39  to  398-60 
„      354-47  „  391-07 


+  1-110 


+  1-1.50 
+  1-220 


Mean  of  means  |   +  1  810 


The  table  shows  that  despite  the  difficulty  of  transportation,  the  correspondence 
of  the  barometers  was  very  satisfactory,  so  that  the  results  obtained  are  quite 
reliable.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  greatest  number  of  observations  were 
taken  with  barometers  Nos.  3314  and  3313  (No.  3312  was  used  in  the  base  camp 
at  Rdokass) ;  and  that  the  observations  with  the  hypsometer  were  always  taken  at 
the  same  time  (with  two,  and  sometimes  with  fourthermometers)  to  avoid  all  chance 
of  error.  Tjie  readings  of  the  thermometers  (within  the  limits  of  approximation 
of  the  instrument)  were  always  in  accordance  with  those  of  the  barometers. 

Only  limited  use  was  made  of  the  aneroids.  However,  they  were  compared 
from  time  to  time  with  the  mercurial  Fortin  barometers  in  order  to  keep  them 


Meteorological  Report.  395 

ready  in  case  of  need.  The  experience  acquired  in  Africa  on  the  Ruwenzori,  as 
well  as  on  the  present  expedition,  has  positively  demonstrated  that  one  cannot 
rely  upon  the  indications  given  by  the  aneroid  barometers,  however  accurate  their 
construction,  on  account  of  the  unavoidable  shaking  up  they  get  in  transportation. 
The  hypsometer  was  carried  as  a  substitute  for  the  mercurial  barometers  ia  case 
of  breakage,  and  also  for  those  ascents  on  which  it  might  not  be  possible  to  carry 
the  barometers.  The  hypsometer  certainly  gives  a  less  degree  of  precision  than  the 
mercurial  barometer.  The  error  of  one-tenth  of  a  degree  (which  is  not  unlikely 
to  occur  owing  to  the  difficulties  attending  the  observations)  would  cause  a  corre- 
sponding error  in  the  pressure  of  about  two  millimetres,  an  error  not  possible  to 
the  readings  of  the  mercurial  barometer. 

To  ensure  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  accuracy,  the  use  of  the  hypsometer 
was  constantly  associated  with  that  of  the  mercurial  barometers ;  because,  though 
no  doubt  the  results  it  gives  have  a  smaller  degree  of  precision,  it  may  be  useful  in 
detecting  the  presence  of  any  disturbing  agent  in  the  Fortin  barometers — the 
penetration  of  an  air  bubble,  for  instance,  which  is  the  commonest  and  the  most 
to  be  feared.  With  few  exceptions,  use  was  made  of  the  sling-thermometers  for 
measuring  the  temperature  of  the  air.  These  are  certainly  preferable  to  the  stable 
ones,  although  long  usage  proved  fatal  to  several  of  the  instruments.  They  enabled 
us  to  obtain  the  measurement  of  the  tension  of  vapour  and  of  the  humidity  of  the 
air,  their  bulbs  being  covered  with  a  sheath  of  cotton  soaked  in  water. 

In  order  to  get  an  approximate  idea  of  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  heat,  thermo- 
meters with  the  bulb  blackened  in  vacuum  were  uspd. 

In  providing  the  above  instruments,  the  Duke  was  perfectly  aware  of  the  just 
criticism  usually  made  by  scientists  upon  determinations  of  this  nature.  But  he 
contented  himself  with  little,  not  being  able  to  obtain  the  best.^ 

The  carrying  of  a  meteorological  cage  would  have  been  difficult,  and  its 
advantage  was  problematical.  Therefore  the  following  arrangement  was  adopted 
for  the  exposure  and  reading  of  the  instruments. 

At  Rdokass,  where  the  period  of  the  observations  was  most  extended,  the 
instruments  were  hung  on  a  cross-piece  about  three  feet  high,  held  up  by  two  stakes, 
while  a  waterproof  cap  of  convenient  height  served  to  protect  them  from  rain  and 
sun  at  every  hour  of  the  day.  For  the  other  stations  a  wooden  tripod  was  employed, 
covered  with  a  strong  canvas  cap,  under  which  the  instruments  were  suspended  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  secure  free  circulation  of  air. 

The  hours  of  observations  indicated  in  the  following  tables  correspond  always 
to  the  local  time  at  which  the  observations  were  taken  in  the  observatories  of 
India,  the  data  of  which  were  considered  as  terms  of  compari.sou. 

'  On  the  Ruwenzori  expedition  the  Duke  had  carried  among  other  instriiments  an  excellent 
Angstrom  attinometer,  but  owing  to  its  bulk  and  the  great  difficulty  of  it.s  management,  which, 
required  a  reflecting  galvanometer,  he  was  unaljlo  to  make  use  of  it  as  he  had  hoped. 


896  Appendix  B. 

The  greatest  accuracy  was  aimed  at  in  takinjz  the  observations — as  far  as 
the  sometimes  very  difficult  circumstances  would  permit.  The  comparison  of 
barometers,  which  I  have  described  above — which  niiglit  satisfy  the  requirements 
of  a  laboratory  rather  than  the  conditions  of  an  arduous  campaign — is  sufficient 
demonstration  of  the  care  and  circumspection  practised.  In  the  tables  that  follow 
are  given  all  the  observations  taken  by  the  expedition  from  Gund  to  Tragbal, 
between  April  25th  and  August  8th. 

The  readmgs  of  the  barometers  have  been  corrected  for  instrumental  error, 
reduced  to  0°,  and  for  gravitation  ;  corresponding  corrections  for  all  the  other 
readings  being  made  in  the  same  way. 

The  tables  showing  the  observations  as  they  were  entered  in  the  note-book  on 
the  spot,  though  they  refer  to  only  a  limited  period  of  time,  form  a  valuable  and 
interesting  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  the  climatology  of  these  distant  and  still 
little  known  reL'ions. 


Meteorological  Report. 


397 


II.— TABLE    OF    RESULTS. 


A. — From  Srixagar  to  the  Baltoro  Glacier. 


Month. 


Date. 

Pressure,  nun. 

1 
1 

1 

3 
H 

-             h' 

Teniperat 

lire. 

Day. 

Hour. 

%          2 

3           — 

1 

3 

r. 

S3 

s 

i 

Weather  notes. 


GUND  (stay  from  11.30  ii.m.  of  the  25th  to  7.30  a.m.  of  the  26th), 
25  I    4  p.m.         —      I      — 


April . 

April . 
April. 

April . 
April . 


—      I      —      1 18-0  I    6-82  I  44  I  20-0  I  6-5  1    —    |     Half       overcast 
,         I  I  I  I  I         I  '         I  I  *ky,  cirri-strati. 

SONAMARG  (from  2  p.m.  of  the  26th  to  6..30  a.m.  of  the  27th). 

.    26  !    4  p.m.         —  —      j    6  ■  8  (    6  ■  52    88      _    '  —      —         Sky  covered. 

BALTAL  (from  10.30  a.m.  of  the  27th  to  2  p.m.  of  the  28th). 

.1  27  I   4p.m.   |540-35|  Hyps.      4-3[    5-521  89  |  12-0   2-0     —    I     Sky         covered, 
II  I  I  I  I  I        I  I  '■'*'"  'i''  intervals. 

MUTAJUN  (from  3  p.m.  of  the  28th  to  4  a.m.  of  the  29th). 

.28      4  p.m.     516-24  1  Fortin!    9-4     2-67[30    ll'O   2-0     —    ,     Clear  sky. 

DRAS  (from  10  a.m.  .if  the  29th  to  7  a.m.  of  the  30tli). 

.    29      4  p.m.         —  —        11-5     7-07 1  70      —      —      —        Sky   covered    in 

I  I                                        a.m.,    clear    -with 

I  strong  west  wind 

I  in  p.m. 


KARBU  (from  2  p.m.  of  the  30th  to  7  a.m.  of  May  1st). 


April. 


30 


18-0 110-87,  71 


4  p.m.  — 

KARAL  (from  12  m.  of  the  1st  to  7  a.m.  of  the  2nd). 


—  Partly  eloudv, 
dull,  wind  S.W.  to 
W.  3. 


May  ...      1      4  p.m. 


11-0     6-21 


63 


Clear  and  calm 
i  n  a.m.,  dull, 
strong  S.W.  wind 
in  p.m. 


May 


OLTHINGTHANG  (from  12  m.  of  the  2nd  to  6.30  a.m.  of  the  3rd). 
.     2      4p.m.     544-45    Hyps.    14-8|    8*0   164     18-0   5-0 


1 


Clear     in  a.m.. 

overcast   in  p.m., 

gusts      of  wind 
from  W. 


398 


Appendix  B. 


May- 


May 


May 


May 


May 


May 


May 


A. — From  Srinagar  to  the  Bai-toro  Glacier.     (c«iw.)' 


Date. 

= 

Tt'inperature. 

^ 

•^ 

s 

>. 

1 

••3 

£ 

u 

1 

1 

4i 

"5^ 

5*S 

Month. 

Day. 

Hour. 

3 

S 

1 

i 

E 

O 

g 

3 

6 
1 

u 

E 

3 

E 

i 
a 

Ill 

c  £5 

M'ciither  notes. 

*' 

TAEKUTTA  (from  10  a.m.  of  the  3rd  to  6.30  a.m.  of  the  4th). 

..I     3  1    4  p.m.   I  561-15  I  Hyps.  1 16-8  I    0-96  1     7|26-0I7-0|    —    I     Clear,  gu-sts  from 
I  I  I  II  I         I  I         I  I  S.W.  ill  p.m. 

KHAEMANG  (from  12  m.  of  the  4th  to  6.30  a.m.  of  tlie  5th). 


4  I    4  p.m.   I  565-35  1  Hyps,  j  18-9 


0-78 


5  I    - 


—  I  Clear,  gusts  in 
p.m.  from  W.  to 
S.W. 


TULTI  (from  10.45  a.m.  of  the  5th  to  6.30  a.m.  of  the  6th). 
4  p.m.   I  569-55!  Hyps.  115-81    0-0        0  |    - 


—  I    —    j     Clear,  gusts  from 
I  ,  W.  in  p.m. 


PARKUTTA  (from  12.30  p.m.  of  the  6tli  to  6.15  a.m.  of  the  Tth). 


6  I    4  p.m. 


19-5 


0-76 


23-0 


5-5 


—  Clear  and  calm 
early,  then  half 
overcast,  wind 
from  W.  2,  cirri- 
strati. 


GOL  (from  10.30  a.m.  of  the  7th  to  3.30  a.m.  of  the  8th). 


4  p.m. 


17-0     3-17     22     19-7    7-5 


Overcast  in  a.m., 
cum.-strati,  wind 
from  W.  4,  p.m. 
clear,  wind  from 
W.  2. 


SKARDU  (from  12  m.  of  the  8tli  to  7  a.m.  of  the  9th). 
...1     8  1   4  p.m.  1     —     I      —      I  19-0      2-54,  16      —      —      —    i     Clear  and  calm. 
SHIGAR  (from  11  a.m.  of  the  9th  to  6.30  a.m.  of  the  10th). 
9  I    4  p.m.     577-401  Hyps.    22-9      TIO      5  |  28-5  ,  5-8   54-2      Clear  and  calm. 

KUSHIMUL  (from  12  m.  of  the  10th  to  6.15  a.m.  of  the  llth). 

Mav       110  1       —       1578-631  Hyps.  I  23-4  I    0-89  I  13  '  30-0  j  4-0  I  57-0  I    Cirri-strati,  wind 

"  )         I  I  III  I  III  from  S.W.  2. 

DUSSO  (from  12  m.  of  the  llth  to  6.30  a.m.  of  the  12th). 

May  ...'  11      4  p.m.     570-03  I  Hyps.    209  j    2  46  1  13  |  23-0  '  8-01  57-0      Clear,  calm,  cirri- 

I  III  strati,  wind  from 

'  '  '  W.  3. 


Meteorological  Report. 


399 


A. — From  Srinagar  to  the  Baltoro  Glacier.     (c-o-.w.) 


Date. 

. 

-* 

Temperatu 

-' 

y, 

1 

c 

>i 

Month. 

Day. 

Hour. 

£ 

s 

i 

1 

e 

P. 

o 

1 

1 

1 

S 

1 

'- 

en 

H 

^ 

^ 

Weather  Diites. 


May 


May 
May 


GOMBORO  (from  12  in.  of  the  12th  to  6.15  a.m.  of  the  13th). 


May...    12      4  p.m.     560-05    Hyp.s.    18-4     1-65     10    22-0 


41 -2  Clear,  calm,  in 
p.m.,  I  covered, 
strat.-cum.,  wind 
from  S.W.  3. 


13 


CHONGO  (from  11  a.m.  of  the  13th  to  6.30  a.m.  of  the  14th). 

4  p.m.     532-50    Fortin  1 12-4  |    3-06    28  1 18-5  I  40   425      j  covered,  cirri.- 
I  I  1  emu.,    wind     bet. 

I  I  S.  and  S.W.  2. 


ASKOLEY  (from  10  a.m.  of  the  14th  to  6  a.m.  of  the  16lh). 


May  ... 

14 

10 
4  p.m. 

527-64 
526-45 

Fortin 

12-9 
9-9 

2-76 
6-76 

24 
74 

17-0 

2-0 

410 

15 

8 

528-43 

8-9 

1-19 

14 

10 

528-21 

12-9 

0-68 

6 

19-5 

3-0 

50-0 

4  p.m. 

528-24 

U 

10-9 

2-38 

24 

1 

a.m.  i  covered, 
cir.  - stiat.  p.m. 
strat.  -  cum. 

a.m.  i  covered, 
cirri. p.m.  J,gloomy, 
gusts  from  W. 


16 


PUNMAH  (from  ll.:?0  a.m.  of  the  16th  to  6  a.m.  of  the  17th). 
4p.m.     522-541  Fortin    l-'^'*     3.54    31     19-0   7-0     — 
PAIJU  (from  12  m.  of  the  17th  to  6  a.m.  of  the  18th). 


4  p.m. 


508-83 


Fortin 


12-7 


1-81     16  120-5    50   590 


a.m.  gloomy,  J 
covered,  cir.-cum. 
Light  S  W.  wind. 


Between  LILIGO  and  RHOBUTSE  (from  11.30  a.m.  of  the  18th  to  6  a.m.  of  the  19th). 


Mav 


18 


4  p.m.  (486-871  Fortin  j    9-9 


108     12  117-0   0-01.54-0'     i covered,  strati, 
wind  from  W.  2. 


400 


Appendix  B. 


OS 


O 


cq 


1 

Weather  Ncites. 

Storm  ;  very  cloudy. 
Fine  all  day,  windy  in  p.m. 

Fine,  cluudy  in  p.m. 

1 
93 

d 

■a" 

a 

'% 
B 

Cloudy. 

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Appendix  V> 


C. — Godwin  Austex,  Savoia  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers. 


Date. 


Mouth. 


Hour. 


Temperature. 


Weather  notes. 


May  I  24  1  4  p.m.  i  434  04  I  Fortin 


May     25        10      416 -RS    Fortin 
4  p.m.    41()'72         „ 
„        26    4  p.m.    417-08         „ 


.28 


l29 


30 


31 


June     1 


10 

— 

4  p.m. 

417-60 

8 

416-88 

10 

417  -08 

4  p.m. 

417  -28 

8 

417-60 

10 

417-05 

4  p.m. 

417-55 

8 

418-45 

10 

418-41 

4  p.m. 

418-48 

8 

417 -.50 

10 

41 7 -.58 

4  p.m. 

4:57  ■  43 

8 

416-36 

in 

415-88 

4  p.m. 

41602 

8 

415 -.56 

10 

415-33 

4  p.m. 

414-83 

8 

414-80 

10 

415-25 

4  p.m. 

1415-76 

8      416-10 

I       10     ,416-32 

4  p.m.  1416-50 


10 


8 

10 

4  p.m. 

8 

10 

4  p.m. 

8 

I       ■^'^ 
I  4  p.m. 


414-96 
415-62 
41513 
416-40 
416 -.50 
416-36 
414-81 
414-77 
414-19 


CAMP    II. 

3-0    1  -34      24'  12-0] 

I  I 

CAiMP   III. 

1  -0   2-39     48     9-0 

0-0   3-13   100 

10  0-77      16    16-0 

2-0   2-69     51    15-2 
6-0  0-00       0 


3-0  0-00       0   15-0 

0-5   2-65  56 
2-0   3-64      74 
1-5   2-03     51    12-0 
5-4    1-39      21 
3-0   2-17      38 

0-0   3-96  100    13-5 
7-1    4-24     .56 
3  0    1-34      24 

I 
30  1-34  24  130 
3-0   2-17      38 


3-5  1-08  19    170 

3-5  1-91  .32 

1-7  2.32  70     80 

2-5  2-43  44 

3-5  1  -91  32 

0-0  3-74  85    130 

1-0  3-22  65 

0-0  3-74  81 


9 -Si 


Light 
from  N. 


Ijreoze 


10  -0  49-0      Clear,  N.  wind 
■   90 
•   40 


42-5 


0  0 

4-16 

91 

12 

0 

3-0 

2-17 

38 

3-0 

0-93 

17 

2-0 

104 

20 

12 

0 

51 

1-07 

17 

2-0 

1-04 

20 

11 

0 

3-5 

0-29 

05 

00 

2-09 

10 

5 

6-1 

1-44 

20 

4-0 

1-64 

27 

Clear,  liglit  wind 
I  from  N.E. 
44-5      Clear     in     a.m., 
partly   cloudy    in 
p  m.,    light    wind 
I  from  S.W. 

9-5   37-0      Sleet.     Dull. 


6  -  0   44  -  0       Wind  from  .S. W. 
Sleet  and  hail  in 
p.m. 
!)-.')    51-0       Half       overcast, 
wind   from   S.W., 
.sleet  in  p.m. 
Clear,  very  light 
44-0   wind   from  S.VV., 
partly    cloudy    in 
evening. 
Partlv      cloudy, 
40  48-0    S.W.    wind,   sleet 

]  at  intervals. 

3-0   35-0      Same. 


51-0  2-3  in.  snow, 
soon  melted.  Dull 
weather  and  light 
wind  from  N.E.  in 
evening.  Clear 
night,  with  brisk 
wind  in  gusts  from 
S.W. 

—   9-5   42-5      Fair,  calm  upper 
air,  S.W.  3. 


9-0 


8-3 


-   40 


490,     Wind     S.S.W. 

Sky  half  overcast, 

peaks  clear. 
38-0      Fair,  light  S.W. 

wind. 

44  "8  Fair  in  a.m.,  then 
sky  covered,  S.W. 
wind. 


Meteorological  Report. 


403 


C. — Godwin  Austex,  Savoia  A>rt)  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers. 


{Contd.) 


Date. 

.^2 

>i 

Temperature. 

1 
1 

1  i 

£ 

s 
o 

c 

s 

*i 

si-i 

i- 

— 

1 

3 

t 

i 

5*  g 

Month. 

- 

Hour. 

u 

1 

-s 
g 

3J 

5 
S 
2 

£ 

3 

S 

3 

111 

Weather  notes. 

H 

a 

s 

l£|3 

June 

11 

8 

413-90 

Fortin 

-   2-0 

2-39 

59 

10-0 

-TO 

430 

10 

413-72 

}) 

4-0 

1-04 

27 

4  p.m. 

414-17 

1) 

1-0 

117 

23 

» 

24 

4  p.m. 

417-05 

>» 

7-0 

12-0 

-   6-5 

39-8 

Liglit  wind  from 
S.W.,    peaks    un- 
covered. 

)» 

25 

8 

419-46 

») 

6-0 

— 

— 

10-0 

-   60 

42  0 

Fair,  cahii,  very 

10 

419-56 

)» 

7-0 

— 

— 

clear  atmosphere. 

4  p.m. 

419-85 

>j 

6-0 

— 

— 

„ 

26 

8 

418-69 

?» 

8-0 

— 



17-2 

-   4-5 

490 

Same. 

10 

418-35 

» 

11-0 

— 

— 

1 

4  p.m. 

418-60 

)) 

11-0 

— 

— 

i 

J» 

27 

12 

415-16 

)» 

12-0 

— 

— 

15-0 

-   8-0 

44-0 

Fair,    calm  ;    in  ] 

4  p.m. 

414-40 

)» 

11-0 

p.m.     wind    from 
S.W.,   fresh    high  • 
up,      jieaks      un- 
covered. 

)» 

28 

8 

413- 13 

j» 

-   4-0 

— 

— 

5-0 

-   3-5 

290 

Sleet,  thick   fog 

10 

413-10 

)» 

1-0 

— 

— 

in    valley,    peaks  ' 

4  p.m. 

412-88 

)) 

4-0 

— 

— 

covered;    light 
wind  from  S.W. 

1) 

29 

8 

413-00 

i» 

0-0 

— 

— 

0-0 

— 

460 

Snow    early    in 

10 

413-18 

»» 

30 

— 

— 

a.m.,  half-covered 

4  p.m. 

413-40 

)» 

5-0 

— 

— 

sky. 

June 


CAMP  IV. 


May 

31 

8 

391  16 

Fortin 

-   20   1-18 

30 



10 

390-85 

•    2-0   1-04 

20 



4  p.m. 

390-55 

-   1-0   1-04 

24 



June 

1 

8 

389  07 

-   l-0|l-82 

43 



10 

389-78 

l-0ll-18 

23 



4  p.m. 

388-85 

-    1-0   1-04 

24 

—       1            —                   — 

'    5 

4 

6 

8 

10 

4 

7 

4 

8 

8 

10 

CAMP  V. 

394-05    Fortin 

-3-0 

2-86     78 

8-0 



51  0 

Sleet  ;       strong 
tourmente      from 
N.  during  night. 

393 -3G        „ 

-80 

1-39     56 

90 

-15-0 

61  0 

Skv     partly 

393-42 

-2-0 

3-96   100 

cloudy,     ight    N. 

393-82        „ 

-2-J 

2-211    58 

wind. 

.393  17;       „ 

— 

12-0 

-13-5 

52-0      Light  wind  from 
,  N.N.W. 

39.5-34 

-50 

1-27     40 

9-0 

-15-0  51 -Oi    Clear,  light  S.W. 

395-42 

-30 

2-09     57 

wind. 

June      7  i  5 .  15 
(9221) 


SAVOIA  PASS  (W.  gl'cr.,  W.  col.). 
349-70;  Fortin     -90      —    i  _  i    _    1     _ 


2  c  2 


404 


Appendix  B. 


C. — Godwin  Austex,  Savoia  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers.  (Conu 


'■) 


Date. 

S 

T 

emperature. 

S 

i 

g 

e 

>i 

.,J=  . 

Month. 

1 

Hour. 

E 

£ 

t 

1 

s 

3 
u 

s 

3 

g 

o 

1 

S 

9 

9 

PS 

s 

a" 

3 

a 

1 

d 

s 

E 

3 

E 

5sg 

S  C  3 

H 

*" 

Weather  notes. 


June 

12 

10 

4 

I) 

13 

8 

10 

4 

)) 

14 

8 
10 

4 

J) 

15 

4 

j» 

16 

8 

10 

4 

)» 

17 

8 
4 

»» 

18 

8 

10 

4 

)) 

19 

10 
4 

)> 

20 

8 

10 

4 

» 

21 

8 

10 

4 

>» 

22 

8 

10 

4 

)» 

23 

8 

10 

4 

39.T  •  7 1    Fortiii 
396  04 


397 
397 
397 

397 
397 
397 
397 
397 
396 
396 
395 
395 

396 
395 
395 


37 
65 
94 

64 
88 
90 
53 
13 
52 
38 
41 
54 

27 
48 
09 


394-16 
393-71 


393-21 
393-56 
393-41 

394-23 
394-50 
394-15 


395 
395 
395 
394 
395 
395 


-42 
-25 
-76 
-75 
-25 
-44 


CAMP  VI. 


2-0 

2-34 

59 

4-0 

-   6-0 

38-0 

30 

— 

— 

1 

10 

3-43 

80 

8-0 

-   4-5 

50-2 

30 

2-17 

38 

0-0 

3-74 

81 

2-0 



_ 

8-0 

-   4-0 

_ 

3-0 

— 

— 

0-0 

— 

— 

1-0 

— 

— 

8-0 

-   7-0 

— 

6-0 

— 

— 

3-0 

-10-0 

— 

8-0 

— 

— 

3-5 

— 

— 

4-0 

— ■ 

— 

13-0 

-   8-0 

51-Oi 

3-0 

— 

— 

. 

4-0 





12-0 

-   7-5 

52-0 

2-0 

— 

4-0 

— 

1-5 

8-5 

-   7-5 

52-0 

4-5 

— 

— 

10 

_ 

8-5 

-10-0 

55-0 

0-5 

— 



0-0 

. 

— 

6-0 

2-89 

100 

8-0 

-   9-0 

50-0 

1-0 

1-82 

43 

60 

0-59 

8 

30 

1-33 

36 

9-0 

-   7-5 

46-0 

1-5 

2-12 

41 

0-5 

1-04 

22 

4-0 

1-85 

55 

9-0 

-   8-0 

51-0 

5-0 

— 

— 

00 

— 

— 

Sleet  ;  dull 

weather,  S.W. 
wind. 

Peaks  covered  ; 
S.W.  wind  ;  in 
p.m.  wind  from 
N.W.  and  S.W. 

Calm  in  valley  ; 
S.W.  wind  on  the 
heights. 

Fair  and  calm  ; 
peaks  uncovered. 

Sky  covered  ; 
light  wind  from 
S.W. 

Fair  in  a.m.  ; 
light  wind  from 
E.N.E.  ;  in  p.m. 
sky  overcast,  light 
S.W. 

Wind  N.E.  and 
S.W.  ;  sleet,  sky 
overcast,  peaks 
covered. 

Heavy  weather ; 
calm  upper  air, 
light  S.W.  wind 
in  valley. 

Light  W.N.W. 
in  a.m.,  peaks  un- 
covered :  p.m. 
half  overca8t,light 
S.W. 

Fair,  wind  from 
S.W.,  colder 
above. 

Sleet  ;  strong 
wind,  gusts  S.W.- 
S.S.W.  ;  peaks 
covered. 


SELLA  PASS. 
June  115'  11.15  |  353-85  |  Fortin  |    -3-0  |    —    |  —  1 

CAMP  VII. 
•6-5  12-04     74 


June    14 


4      373-51    Fortin 


28-0 


Tourmente, 
strong  S.W.  ;  sky 
overcast. 


Meteorological  Report. 


405 


C. — Godwin  Austen,  Savoia  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers.  (Conw.) 


Date. 


Month. 


Hour. 


Temperature. 


♦^  *»  a* 

•C  4.  — 
a>  ;:  S 


Weather  notes. 


June    15 


16 
17 

18 

13 

20 


June  1  24 


8 

4 

10 

4 

8 

10 

4 

4 

8 


373-40    Fortin 
373-28        „ 
372-71        „ 

370-08 

372-18        'I 
370-8.5 
369-4:5 
369-04 


.360-78    Fortin 


CAMP  viir. 

■6-0     1-77]    61  1 
STAIRCASE. 


•0 

1-22 

46 

_ 

60-0 

•5 

1-37 

42 

— 





-0 

2-09 

57 

— 

— 

— 

-0 





9-0 

-10-0 



-0 

— 

— 



— . 



•0 

2-67 

100 

— 

— 



•0 

2-61 

77 

— 

— 



•0 

2-89 

100 

— 





-0 

2-26 

100 

— 

— 



Strong        S.W., 
peaks  covei-ed. 
—         Fair  early,  then 
overcast. 


June  !  25     1  p.m.  |  348  30    Fortin     6-0(i)      —      — 

CAMP  IX. 


June 

29 

4 

430-96 

Fortin 

7-0 

— 

— 

15-0 

-   2-0 

)» 

30 

8 

432-34 

•» 

3-0 





12-0 

-   5-0 

10 

431 

81 

,) 

2-0 





I 

4 

431 

91 

n 

8-0 

— 



1 

July 

1 

10 

431 

33 

11-0 

5-04 

52 

16-0 

-   3-0 

4 

431 

33 

»• 

12-0 

3-36 

32 

)) 

2 

8 

431 

23 

4-0 

3-54 

60 

17-0 

-   4-0 

4 

431-33 

n 

150 

4-85 

38 

>» 

3 

8 

4.32-69 

)» 

4-0 

3-16 

52 

16-0 

-   2-0 

10 

432-65 

)i 

11-0 

2-83 

29 

4 

432-56 

JJ 

14-5 

2-87 

23 

» 

4 

8 

433-55 

)» 

7-0 

3-30 

44 

17-5 

-   1-5 

10 

434-49 

J) 

9-0 

3-11 

36 

4 

434-35 

5> 

11-5 

3-06 

30 

)) 

5 

8 

433-01 

M 

2-0 

3-41 

64 

11-0 

-  2-0 

10 

4.33-27 

4-0 

5-09 

83 

4 

432 

95 

H 

10-5 

6-40 

67 

44-0 
46-0 

470 

46-0 

430 
45-4 


42-5 


Wind  S.VV.,  half 
overcast. 

Sky  overcast, 
wind  S.W.,  snow 
at  intervals. 

Very  fine  and 
calm. 

Fair  in  a.m.,  then 
cloudy,ciiri-strati, 
peaks  free,  W. 
wind  in  upper  air. 

Fair  and  calm  ; 
light  S.W.  above, 
freshening  in  p.m. 
and  veering 
W.N.W. 

Half  overcast 
and  cirri-strati  in 
a.m.  ;  strong  S.W. 
above  ;  high  peaks 
covered  ;  overcast 
in  p.m.  ;  gusts 
from  S.W. 

Sleet,  peaks 
covered,  S.W. 
above. 


July      1        —       428-30    Hyps. 
(9221) 


CAMP  X. 
5-0      —      — 
(')  Uncertain. 


2  c  3 


40G 


Appendix  B. 


C. — GoDwix  Austen,  Savoia  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers.  (Contd.) 


Datf 

s 

Temperature.          | 

i 

s 

s 

1 

o 

"C 

-,  .c   . 

s 

s 
■^ 

qT 

o 

E 

S 

ti 

2'SS 

£ 

s 

3 

01 

« 

o 

^.t.  ^ 

Month. 

9 

Hour.             « 

u 

g 

s. 

0) 

1 

— 

s 

3 

111 

H 

a 

Ed 

S 

lil 

Weatlu'r  nutfs. 


July 

7 

)) 

8 

» 

9 

» 

10 

1} 

11 

)} 

12 

» 

13 

n 

14 

» 

15 

J) 

16 

>J 

17 

It 

18 

»» 

19 

— 

418-34 

Fortin 

4-0 

4MP 

XI. 



II                                             1               1                       1               1                              1                              1                                      III                                     II 



Snow  :it  iu- 
terval.s,  peaks 
covered,  light 
S.W. 

Snow  at  in- 
tervals, peaks 
covered,  calm 
below.  Heavy 
snowfall  in  even- 
ing;. 

Sky  covered, 
some  peaks  free. 

Very  fine,  even- 
ing light  S.W., 
peaks  uncovered. 

Very  fine,  S.W. 
above. 

a.m.  sky  half 
overcast,  p.m. 
overcast.  Sleet, 
wind  from  S.W. 

Snow  during 
night,  snow  and 
sleet  day,  sky 
covered,  calra. 

Calm  low  down, 
sky  covered,  dull 
weather,  sleet, 
half  clear  at  sun- 
set. 

Calm  low  down, 
sky  and  peaks 
covered.     Sleet. 

Calm  low  down  ; 
half  c  o  v  e  r  e  d. 
Cirri-strati.  High 
peaks  covered. 

Calm  below, 
mo.stly  fair,  peaks 
partly  free.  In 
p.m.  clouded  over, 
rain. 

sky  and 

covered  ; 

N.N.E. 


Calm  ; 
peaks 
rain, 
above. 

Calm, 
peaks 


sky    and 
covered. 


p.m.  half  clearing. 
Fine  sunset. 


Meteorological  Keport. 


407 


C. — Godwin  Austen,  Savoia  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers,  iconut.) 


Dat( 

s 

Temperature. 

% 

s 

"_ 

.-= 

;: 

u 

^ 

^ 

^ 

5-5-" 

Month. 

1 

Hour.             £ 

3 
2 

o 

o 
•3 

1 

Li 
3 

s 

3 

in 

b 
H 

s 

■§M 

Weather  notes 


Julv     20     9.40 
10 


July 


July      9 


417-46    Fortin 
417-23        „ 


12      417-31 


8 
10 

4 

8 
10 

4 

10 

4 


393-87    Fortin  , 
39.J-37     Hyps.  | 


393-65    Fortin 


8-0      —      — 
6-0      —      — 

CAMP  xir. 

8-0    4-12      51    19-0 
2-0    4-82      91    220 


6-0   57 
1-0   22 


70    3-20      43    25-0    -   6-0   51 


392-98 
392-38 

392-53 


391  09 
390 • 30 


11 
8 

_2 

+  2 


0 


—  122-0 


0    2-231    21 


5  2-90 

5  — 

0  2-83 

0  4-22 

0  — 

0  — 


37 

—  17-0 
29 

53 

—  12-0 


377-71    Fortin 


CAMP  XIII. 
8-0    0-31     —    16-0 
CA.MP   XIV. 


July 

10 

1.30 

354-00 

Fortin 

1-0 

— 

4 

354-40 

J, 

30 

0-52 

)» 

14 

10 

354-10 

)? 

3-0 

2-17 

4 

354-35 

'J 

1-0 

4-01 

»» 

15 

8 

)» 

2-0 



10 

354-40 

1) 

1-5 

— 

4 

— 

11 

-1-0 

— 

16 

8 

0-0      — 

10 

353-93 

n 

5-0      — 

4 



» 

12-0 

— 

0 
38 
81 


4-0 
4-0 

3-0 

6-0 


6-0   51 


-   5-0   49 


9-0      — 


■170   51 


16  0   46 


Snowfall  during 
night  and  a.m.  ; 
low  mi.st,  calm. 


Snow  all  day,  W. 
wind  high  up ; 
peaks  covered  ; 
clear  below. 

Sniiw  and  sun- 
shine at  intervals. 


Intervals    of 
snow     and     sun- 
shine, clearing  at 
sunset. 
I     Snow  ;  calm. 


100   60 


8-0   57 


1-0   58 


Fair  and  calm. 

Wind  from 
!  S.W. ;  snow  at  in- 
tervals ;  sun. 

Snow;  light 
S.W.  ;  intervals 
of  sun. 

Light  S.W.  ; 
peaks  covered, 
clear  below  ;  in- 
tervals of  sun. 

CAMP  XV  (i). 
July     11  4       34212    Fortin         00       —       —  i    30      -13-0   51-0       Fair,  light  S.W. 

CAMP  XV  (ii). 
July     17  4      335-74    Fortin         5-0      —      —      — 

NEAREST  BRIDE  PEAK. 
Julv     18      2..30    312-33 1  Fortin  I      6-0  14-18     57     — 


—       67-0      Cloud  V. 


(9221) 


C  4 


408  Appendix  B. 

I). — Observations  Made  on  the  Return  Journey. 


Dftte. 

i 

£ 

1 

c 

e 

t. 

3 

z 

cC 

3 

2 

K 

H 

V 

E 
S 

3 

o 

a 
o 

'la 

1 

1 

3 
.S 

> 

Tcniperatvirf  <luring 
the  a4  hours. 

Weather  notes. 

Mouth. 

'i 

Q 

Hour. 

1 

e 

3 
C 

Minimum,  cent. 

Indicated  by  the 

thermometer  with 

hlack  bull>.  cent. 

CAMP  ON   N.   SIDE   OF  SKORO-LA. 

July  ... 

28 

4 

470-34  1  Fortin;  15-8:  1  •4.3  1    11       —  |     —     \    — 
SKORO-LA. 

Fair,  light  S.W. 

July  ... 

29 

11 

413-27    Fortin      6-4       —     I—    !—  '     —     |    — 

Partly  fair. 

CAMP  BETWEEN   BURGI-LA  AND  SKARDU. 

August 

1 

4 

504-63    Fortin    19-4     5-84  1    35    '   -  ,  -9-0  ^    — 

1                                      1           1         i             J 

BUR(iI-LA. 

Storm       from 
S.W.  in  p.m. 

August 

2 

9.r)0 

427-65    Fortin      9-4.     —     |    —    |  —  !     —     1    — 
ir.  CAMP  on  THE  DEOSAI  TABLE-LAND. 

August 

3 

4 

469-81 

Fortin 

15-3 

4-66       36 

—  '     0-0 



Three  -  quarters 
covered,      strong 
S.W. 

SARSINGAR. 

August 

4 

9.50 

455-81    Fortin    11-9;     —     ;_|  —  |     _|_ 
STAKPI-LA. 

Fair  and  talm. 

August 

4 

12.  ."iO 

470-61     Fortin,  18-9,     —     ;    —    ,—          -     ,    — 
BURZIL. 

August 

4 

4 

505-22    Fortin  ,  19-9,  6-77     39-0     —      lii-O 
PASHWARL 

Fresh  S.S.W. 

August 

5 

4 

570-07    Hyps.    19-9      —        _    i  — 

11, 

OUR  A  IS. 

Rain     in     p.m. 
Wind  S.M^ 

August 

6 

4 

591-28    Hyps.    15-8    11-931    89    :—      130 

1          1             >           1 

— 

Showers       from 
S.W.,  fresh  wind. 

GORE. 

August 

7 

4 

546-42     Hyps.    15-8    10-54:    79    1  —       —     ,    —   1 

i           '             1           1 

RAJDIANGAN  PASS. 

Cloudy  weather, 
calm. 

August 

8 

9 

497-59    Fortin    12-8  j  5-02  1    45      —       —        — 
TRAGBAL. 

Fair  above,  mists 
below. 

August 

' 

4 

540-38'  Hyps.  1 20-91     —        —      ~i     ~        ~ 

III                                1 

Fair  and  calm. 

Altinietric  Calculations.  409 


ill.— ALTIMETRIC    CALCULATIONS. 

Beside  the  results  obtained  by  his  own  observations,  which  are  given  in  the 
preceding  pages,  the  Duke  gathered  a  very  large  harvest  of  data  from  the  meteoro- 
logical observatories  of  India,  in  order  to  get  the  terms  of  reference  required  for 
the  calculation  of  the  altitudes.  As  results  from  the  above  data,  a  first  base  station 
was  fixed  at  Rdokass,  at  an  altitude  of  about  13,000  feet,  well  up  on  the  Baltoro 
glacier,  on  which  were  taken  observations  of  pressure,  temperature  and  humidity 
for  a  period  lasting  from  May  29th  to  July  15th. 

Afterwards  a  second  base  was  fixed  at  an  altitude  of  about  16,000  feet  (Camp 
III)  at  the  very  foot  of  K-,  beside  other  secondary  ones,  in  order  to  secure  nearer 
points  of  reference  for  the  calculation  of  the  height  of  the  points  reached  in  the 
various  ascents.     These  calculations  were  made  on  the  following  basis  : — 

For  all  the  stations  before  Rdokass  and  for  those  from  Bride  Peak  onward 
the  calculation  of  the  various  heights  was  made  by  comparing  them  with  the 
simultaneous  readings  taken  at  the  stations  of  Leh,  Skardu,  Gilgit,  and  in  some 
cases  with  those  taken  at  Srinagar  as  well.  All  observations  taken  at  stations 
higher  than  Rdokass  (from  May  29th  to  July  15th),  which  formed  the  prmcipal 
objects  of  the  expedition,  were  compared  with  those  taken  simultaneously  at 
Rdokass,  except  for  the  two  last,  after  July  15th,  when  owing  to  a  misunderstanding 
the  observations  at  Rdokass  were  discontinued. 

For  the  station  near  Bride  Peak,  which  was  the  highest  point  reached,  com- 
parison was  made  with  the  readings  taken  at  the  four  stations  of  Leh,  Srinagar, 
Skardu  and  Gilgit. 

Of  the  results  given  in  the  foregoing  pages,  those  were  especially  taken  mto 
consideration  for  which  the  simultaneous  data  of  reference  were  secured,  these 
being  complete  (that  is  to  say,  not  only  the  pressure  but  also  the  temperature  of 
the  air  and  the  tension  of  vapour  were  known).  In  some  isolated  cases  the  hour 
of  observation  was  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  reference  station ;  in  this  case  the 
readings  were  compared  with  those  taken  at  the  nearest  hour,  without  attempting 
to  obtain  values  by  interpolation,  which  would  necessarily  have  been  unreliable.'^ 

'  The  observations  at  the  most  elevated  point,  near  tlie  top  of  Bride  Peak,  were  taken  at 
half -past  two  p.m.  on  July  18th,  and  for  the  calculations  the  comparisons  were  made  with  obser- 
vations taken  at  4  p.m.  in  Leh,  Srinagar,  Skardu  and  Gilgit.  From  the  data  given  by  these 
observatories  it  follows  that  on  July  18th  the  pressure  for  Leh.  Srinagar,  Skardu  and  Gilgit 
respectively  was  at  10  a.m.  497  -15,  623  94,  .575  15  and  631  -66  millimetres,  and  at  4  p.m.  493  -96, 
619-90,  .572-20  and  627-78  millimetres.  Thus  the  pressure  at  2  p.m.  was  presumably  much 
higher  than  at  4  p.m.  assumed  for  the  calculations,  and  hence  the  altitude  of  the  highest  point 
reached  is  probably  some  66  feet  higher  than  the  figure  obtained.  But  this  supplementary 
computation  was  not  made,  because  it  was  a  question  of  an  isolated  observation,  and  also 
because  little  was  knowii  of  tlie  daily  variation  of  the  pressure  in  those  regions. 


410  Appendix  B. 

When  all  the  necessary  data  were  known  for  the  two  stations  of  reference — in  other 
words,  the  pressure,  the  temperature  and  the  vapour  tension — the  well-known 
formula  of  Riihlmaiui  was  employed  to  calculate  the  differences  of  level : — 

Z  =  1S400  O'00157  +  OOOotiT  0)  (      _  Q.o-o  A, 

7 
X  (1  +  0-002.-^9  CO.S  2\)  1  +  (^r^f^^Ql)  log  £, 

in  which 

Z  =  the  difference  of  level  between  the  two  stations ; 
//!,  =  the  corrected  pressure  at  the  lower  station ; 
//  =     „  „  „  „      upper  station ; 

6  =   "  .-,      the  mean  between  the  temperature  of  tlie  air  at  the  lower  stsition  and 

at  the  ui)per  station  ; 

f  +  f 

0  =*'-^—  the  mean  between  the  vapour  tension  at  the  lower  station  and  that 

obtained  at  the  upper  station ; 

1  =     -2       ' 

\  =  the  latitude ; 

z  =  the  height  of  the  lower  station  above  sea  level. 

The  calculations  were  made  by  means  of  the  Tables  meteordogiques  inter- 
natimiales,  Paris,  1890. 

In  those  cases  where  only  the  pressure  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  were  known, 
the  tension  of  vapour  not  bemg  determined,  the  formula  used  was  that  given 
in  the  Annuarre  four  Van  1909  jniblie  par  le  Bureau  des  Longitudes,  in  which  are 
also  included  some  tables  that  facilitated  the  calculations.  The  formula  is  as 
follows  : — 

^  \  1000  J 

in  which 

A^  =  18.-.S2  •  hy  '^  +   -i f  18382  %  '  ^-^Y 

•^   //         (J366000  \  B  J, 

A  =  18382  •  lor,  ' ^°-  +   -i (18382  %  '^ f 

■    IT,        (5366000  \  •    /f„  /, 

the  symbols  having  the  same  meaning  as  before. 

In  this  approximate  formula  no  account  is  taken  of  the  humidity  of  the  air, 
but  to  make  up  for  this  we  have  assumed  0'004  as  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of 
the  air  instead  of  0-00367. 


Altiinetric  Calculations. 


411 


When  it  is  only  a  question  of  isolated  observations,  we  consider  this  formula 
more  than  sufficient  in  consequence  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  law  of  decrease  of 
temperature  with  increase  of  altitude. 

For  further  proof,  and  to  .show  more  clearly  the  value  that  we  can  attribute 
to  the  individual  observations  in  the  pages  that  follow,  we  give  in  addition  to  the 
observations  taken  by  the  Duke  those  obtained  simultaneously  at  the  reference 
stations,  drawn  as  far  as  Leh  and  Srinagar  are  concerned  from  the  data  obtained 
from  the  central  observatory  at  Simla,  and  for  those  of  Skardu  and  Gilgit  from  the 
observatory  of  Srinagar. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  here  into  the  value  of  the  barometric  method  in 
calculating  altitudes.  If  this  method  is  not  on  the  whole  to  be  compared  with  the 
geodetic  in  precision,  still,  used  with  care,  it  may  lead  to  very  satisfactory  residts. 

We  give  in  the  following  table  the  measurements  obtained  by  the  Duke  in  1906 
in  the  Ruwenzori  group  by  means  of  barometric  measurements  and  those  taken  two 
years  later  with  the  geodetic  method  by  Major  R.  G.  T.  Bright,'  during  the  labours  of 
the  Boundary  Commission  for  the  delimitation  of  the  boimdaries  of  the  Congo  Free 
State : — 


Muuntain. 

Boundary  commission. 

H.H.II. 

Differeni-.s. 
Feet.            Metres. 

Feet. 

Metres. 

Feet. 

Metres. 

a 

/ 

e 

d 

c-a 

"-/ 

Margherita         

16794 

5119 

16815 

5125 

+   21 

1 
+  6 

Alessandra          

16726 

5098 

16749 

5105 

+   23 

+   7 

Elena       

1634.-) 

4982 

16.388 

4995 

+   43 

+  13 

Savoia      

16421 

5005 

16339 

4980 

-   82 

-25 

Umberto             

1.57.^)4 

4802 

15988 

4873 

+  234 

+  71 

Krepelin 

15724 

4793 

15752 

4801 

+   28 

+   8 

Weissmann         

1.5163 

4622 

15299 

4663 

+  1.36 

+  41 

Practically  identical  results  were  also  attained  in  the  determination  of  the 
altitude  of  Mount  St.  Elias : — 

Altitude  determined  by  the  Duke  with  barometric  method,  18,090  feet. 
Id.  by  Russel  (by  triangulation),  18,100  feet. 

Id.  by  I.  K.  MacGrath,  U.S.  Coast  Survey  (by  triangulation),  18,024  feet. 
But  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  best  results  are  those  obtained  from  a  long  series 
of  observations,  and  that  greater  uncertainty  remains  in  the  case  of  those  based  on 
isolated  observations,  especially  when  the  tension  of  vapour  has  not  been  determined. 
The  last  table  contains  a  summary  of  all  the  altimetric  data. 

'  Survey  and  Exploration  in  the  Ruwenzori  and  Lalce  Region,  Central  Africa.      By  JLiJOR 
R.  G.  T.  Bright,  C.M.G.,  Geog.  Jour.  Aug.  1909,  XXXIV.  p.  128. 


412 


Appendix  B, 


DATA  OF  OBSERVATION   AND  COMPARISON. 


A. — From  Kashmir  to  the  Baltoro  Glacier. 


No. 

Date. 

Station  of  observation. 

Simultaneous  data  of  comparison 

Month 
aii.l 
day. 

X 

Place. 

S 

s 

1 

1 

i 

3 
1 

a 
E 

3 

i. 

at 

1 

Instrument  used 

for  measurement 

of  pressure, 

1 

Of  the 

stations 

of 

s 

£ 

3 
1 

1 
£ 

3 

s 

s. 
s 

3 

1 
P 

! 

1 

27  April 

16 

Baltal 

540-35 

4-3 

5-52 

Hyps. 

Si'inagar 

! 

627-88    20-4 

13-26 

Leh      ...'49rr.52    11 

3 

1-94 

Skardu    i  574-8.")   18 

6 

0-96 

Gilgit  ...j  633  18    23 

3 

10-12 

2 

28      „ 

16 

Mutajun 

516-24 

9-4 

2-67 

Fortin 

Srinagar  628-39   21 

7 

13-57 

Leh      ... 

497-. 50    13 

2 

1-00 

Skardu 

576-63    19 

3 

0-00 

Gilgit  ... 

633-33   27 

3 

3-68 

3 

2  May 

16 

Olthingthang 

544-45 

14-8 

8-00 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 
Gilgit  ... 

496-10    15 
576-43    19 
632-72   23 

2 
1 
1 

0-00 
0-00 
1-49 

4 

3     „ 

16 

Tarkutta       ... 

561-15    16-8 

0-96 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 

495-17 

15 

7 

0-00 

Skardu 

.576-12    18 

1 

0-00 

Gilgit  ... 

632-72 1 23 

1 

1-49 

5 

4     „ 

16 

Kharmang    ... 

565-35  118-9 

0-78 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 

496-34    15 

7 

0-00 

Skardu 

577-26    18 

1 

0-00 

Gilgit  ... 

633-92    20 

7 

2-70 

6 

5     „ 

16 

Tolti 

569-65 

15-8 

0-00 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 

Skardu 
Gilgit  ... 

496-64   15 

577-21    18 
636-64    19 

7 
1 
8 

0-00 
0-00 
2 -.30 

7 

9     „ 

16 

Sliigai-  . 

577-40 

22-9 

1-19 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 

498-64    15 
578-51    23 

1 
1 

0-00 
0-00 

Gilgit  ... 

634-53    29 

8 

3-27 

8 

11     ., 

16 

Dusso 

570-03 

20-9   2-46 

Hyps. 

Leh     ... 

498-47    17 

9 

0-83 

Skardu 

577  -19    23 

3 

0-05 

Gilgit  ... 

635-97   31 

3 

3-05 

9 

12     „ 

16 

Gomboro 

560-05' 18-4 ' 1-65 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 

497-78    16 

7 

0-00 

Skardu 

576-89   22 

5 

0-00 

Gilgit ... 

634-86   25 

8 

6-12 

10 

13     „ 

16 

Chongo 

532-50   12-4   3-06 

Fortin 

Leh      ... 

496-76    17 

4 

000 

Skardu    1 577-04    20 

5 

0-00 

Gilgit  ...|  636-41    22-3 

7-42 

Altimetric  Calculations. 


413 


03 

w 
o 

■< 

o 

o 

« 
o 

H 
►J 

W 

H 

O 
H 


W 


t 

1 

■* 

Oi 

■* 

05 

:^ 

t^ 

1 

'luai 

Oi 

<3i 

S4 

•* 

<p 

<o 

■anodiTA  JO  aoisuax 

pH 

1— ( 

•* 

re 

f— 1 

01 

CO 

-t 

CD 

05 

t 

» 

"juao  'ajTH'BJ^diuax 

^ 

t^ 

^ 

cn 

cs 

00 

H 

r-4 

l-l 

»- 

1^ 

00 

00 

lO 

o 

05 

o 

is' 

|0 

o 

t^ 

9 

o 

-* 

05 

Ifl 

CXj 

l^ 

C5 

05 

t^ 

05 

a 

05 

05 

05 

OS 

05 

05 

o 

Ph 

T 

■* 

^ 

t 

•* 

Tf 

5 

^ 

o 

-t 

CD 

O 

I^ 

CD 

CD 

5 

'OIUI 

t^ 

00 

fri 

fM 

CD 

*S 

•jnodBA  JO  aoisaax 

to 

« 

t^ 

CD 

i 

OD 

"C 

H 

w 

CO 

^ 

t^ 

Tf 

t^ 

s. 

S 

1-} 

•-^uao  'aJtviBJaduiax 

I^ 

fn 

05 

^ 

rM 

O 

E 

1— I 

(M 

O) 

(Tl 

(M 

O 

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3 

o 

aT 

(M 

05 

00 

(N 

CO 

CO 

5 

is' 

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■n 

r- 

05 

CO 

r* 

•s 

ira 

M 

la 

■n 

CO 

■* 

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CO 

CO 

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re 

3 

Oh 

«D 

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CO 

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CD 

3 

a 

a 

f_^ 

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,_i 

t^ 

^^ 

00 

9 
S 

'tuoi 

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CO 

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-* 

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tj 

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00 

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r^ 

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CD 

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t~ 

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JO  'jndtndjnsvdm 

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joj  ;uamnj;sai 

.§' 

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05 

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t^ 

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CD 

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t^ 

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'jnod-BA  JO  aoisaax 

(N 

CD 

•^ 

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rM 

(N 

05 

03 

05 

05 

05 

l"H 

g 

5 

')Ud3  *djn)BJddmdx 

oq 

05 

00 

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b 

^ 

1— 1 

I— ' 

l-H 

l-H 

ra 

£ 

-t 

tO 

c; 

,_ 

-* 

05 

3    ■ 

^ 

'i* 

tT 

r>\ 

^1 

t' 

is 

1?- 

<r> 

00 

00 

00 

,"^ 

<N 

fN 

rM 

CN 

(N 

(N 

(1. 

O 

O 

*-- 

lO 

o 

o 

3 

o 

T)l 

00 

O 

•* 

: 

O 

l-H 

l-H 

S 

a 

!>> 

: 

: 

s 

V 

cfl 

"S 

TS 

a 

§ 
a 

l-H 

■o 

1— 1 

6 

1i 

" 

414 


Appendix  B. 


A. — From  Kashmir  to  the  Baltoro  Glacier.  (Conw.) 


No. 

Date. 

Instninifnt  for 

measurement 
of  pressure. 

Simultaneous  data  of  comparison 

Month  and 
<iay. 

3 
O 

a 

Place. 

S 
S 

€ 

3 

i 

si 

Of  the 
stations  of 

B 
S 

aT 
t- 
3 

i 

if 

s 

H 

12 

16  May 

4 

Punniah 

522-54 

13-4 

3-54 

Fortin 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

497-02 
575-06 
632-32 

12-5 
19-9 
25-6 

4-90 
1-54 
5-83 

13 

1"     „ 

4 

Paiju 

508-83 

12-7 

1-81 

Fortiu 

Leli 

497-71 

10-6 

1-09 

Skardu 

576-48 

19-8    1-71  1 

Gilgit 

G34-53 

22-9 

8-03 

14 

18     „ 

4 

Between  Liligo 

486-87 

9-9 

1-08 

Fortin 

Leh 

498-74 

12-1 

3-03 

audKhobutse 

Skardu 
Gilgit 

576  43 
632-90 

22-8    0-00 
29-9    4-63 

1 

The  fuur  tables  which  follow  give  the  data  tVoiu  observations  made  May  29th 
to  July  loth  at  the  stations  of  Srinagar,  Leh,  Skardu  and  Gilgit,  which  served  as 
reference  to  the  observations  carried  on  during  the  same  period  at  Rdokass 
(see  pages  400-401). 


Altiinetric  Calculation^ 


415 


B. — Seinagae. 


Hour  of  observations—    8  a.m. 


4  p.m. 


Date 


?6 


.£  2  -■       "^- 


HS 


29  May 

30 

31 

1  June 
■2 

3 

4 


6 


9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


629-30 

17-4 

628-54 

18-8 

627-22 

19-7 

629-12 

16-6 

629-60 

16-3 

628-01 

17-7 

625-90 

19-4 

626  12 

17-4 

624-75 

18-6 

626  10 

19-7 

625 ■ 79 

20-2 

624-91 

21-3 

627-52 

18-0 

629-83 

19-7 

630-95 

20-5 

628-74 

20-2 

627-24 

20-5 

627-88 

16-6 

625-90 

18-0 

624-07 

19-7 

. — 

17-4 

626  07 

19-7 

626-12 

20-5 

627  12 

17-2 

627-14 

20-2 

628-16 

19-7 

626-51 

21-3 

624-19 

22-7 

625-18 

18-8 

624-37 

19-7 

11-81 


12  -57 


80  629-45 
—  629-83 
78  628-64 


13-69 

80 

627-60 

21 

9 

15-05 

77 

626-12 

11-87 

84 

628-58 

19 

7  12-92 

76 

628-43 

12-05 

87 

629-80 

18 

8 

13-62 

84 

626-81 

12-06 

80 

628-23 

21 

3 

14-29 

76 

624-85 

13-10 

78 

6-25-64 

23 

0  15-72 

75 

624-47 

11-81 

80 

626-01 

21 

6 

15-23 

79 

622-71 

12-70 

80 

624-83 

23 

6 

16-72 

t~ 

621-95 

13-22 

77 

625-79 

24 

3 

16-82 

74 

623-56 

13-85 

79 

625-84 

24 

6 

16-99 

74 

623-42 

14-93 

79 

625-06 

25 

6 

17-62 

73 

623-79 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

625-23 

12-17 

79 

627-60 

22 

4 

14-92 

74 

626-06 

13-22 

77 

629-91 

24 

4 

17-29 

76 

627-77 

14-14 

79 

631-18 

24 

4 

17-29 

76 

627-67 

13-38 

76 

628 -76 

24 

7  17-63 

76 

625-36 

13-67 

76 

626-83 

21 

9  14-57 

75 

627-23 

11-45 

81 

627-60 

19 

8  13-48 

78 

624-93 

12-17 

79 

625-96 

22 

2 

13-42 

67 

623-32 

13-22 

77 

624-22 

22 

3 

15-51 

77 

624-62 

12-24 

83 

626-15 

21 

6 

15-41 

80 

624-03 

13-69 

80 

626-12 

24 

4 

16-76 

74 

623-47 

14-14 

79 

626-25 

24 

8 

17-75 

76 

624-29 

11-50 

79 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

624-95 

13-85 

79 

627-19 

24 

2 

17-94 

80 

625-44 

12-92 

76 

627-93 

25 

3 

17-81 

74 

624-74 

14-93 

79 

626-12 

26 

1 

17-50 

69 

622-95 

15-90 

78 

623-96 

27 

5 

19-45 

71 

620-57 

13-47 

83 

625-71 

20 

0 

14-45 

83 

623-40 

13-22 

77 

624-14 

23 

6 

16-55 

76 

622-23 

— 

— 

624-64 

25 

3 

17-81 

74 

621-73 

623-40  26 

622-08  27 

624-27  27 

626-17  28 


627-06  21 

626-20  20 

626-91  15 

628-96  18 

627-88  22 

625 -.52  24 

624 -.59  25 

625-00  26 

625-25  1  27 


3 

14 

45 

1  1 

± 

16 

8S 

75 

0 

15 

72 

83 

4  18-79  73 

5  19-83  73 
7  22-90  83 
2  21-17  74 


627-21 
627-62 
625-99 


4 

15-36 

81 

9 

13-42 

73 

8 

11-23 

84 

6 

12-70 

80 

2 

16-04 

81 

2 

16-71 

74 

f 

18-47 

75 

5 

19-30 

75 

2 

20-21 

75 

'~~ 

Calculated  mean  of 


Pressure... 
Teiniierature 
Tensiou  of  vapour 


620-20 
619-85 
622-05 
625-03 
624-52 
624-44 
623-30 
627-08 
625-99 
624-09 
623  00 
622-82 
622-90 
623-56 
622-13 


62o-72  mm. 
23-5°  c. 
16-90  mm. 


29 

2 

22- 

27 

8 

20- 

26 

8 

19- 

23 

4 

16- 

17 

9 

11- 

24 

1 

17- 

27 

2 

20- 

24 

8 

18- 

26 

9 

19- 

29 

8 

22- 

30 

1 

21- 

30 

0 

22- 

27 

5 

21- 

22 

6 

15- 

28 

5 

21- 

27 

7 

20- 

28 

9 

20- 

30 

6 

22- 

21 

1 

13- 

25 

7 

19- 

28 

5 

21- 

22 

7  15- 

26 

7  17- 

28 

8  20- 

28 

1 

20- 

28 

7 

21- 

31 

1 

24- 

32 

4 

26- 

33 

1 

26- 

33 

7 

25- 

24 

6 

16- 

26 

9 

19- 

30 

3 

24- 

31 

9 

25- 

32 

3 

25- 

31 

6 

24- 

30 

3 

22- 

28 

9 

21- 

25 

0 

17- 

28 

3 

19- 

15 

7 

10- 

25 

0 

18- 

28 

1 

21- 

29 

3 

22- 

26 

4 

19- 

29 

7 

21- 

26 

7 

19- 

28 

3 

21- 

38  74 

43  73 

31  74 

33  76 

94  78 

29,  78 

02'  75 

11  78 

63  75 

42  72 

61  68 

93  73 

20  78 

97  78 

59  75 
29  73 
93  71 
75  70 
93  75 
03  78 
99  76 
73  77 
67  68 

60  70 
83  j  74 
87  75 


39 
04 
53 


69  66 

63  72 

24!  73 

02  !  75 


72 
71 
72 
71 
74 
73 
70 
81 

1  I 

74 
74 
75 
71 
76 
74 


41G 


A})peudix  li. 


Leh. 


Hour  of  observations —    8  a.m. 

10  a.m. 

4  p.m. 

Date. 

li 

ai       1 

lie 

li 

s 

is 

III 

11 

£ 

is 

it 
II 

-i|£ 

«2 

29  May 

501-66 

12-7 

1-92 

17 

501-51 

16-7 

1-44 

10 

498-54 

21-0 

0-00 

0 

30 

— 

— 

— 

— 

501 

79 

17-3 

1 

86 

12 

499  08 

20 

5 

1-64 

9 

31 

501-13 

12-9 

2-44 

22 

500 

98 

17-7 

1 

84 

12 

497-81 

21- 

3 

2-70 

14 

1  June 

499-25 

13-2 

2-26 

20 

498 

90 

17-4 

2 

47 

16 

496-05 

22 

4 

0-00 

0 

2 

498-98 

14-1 

3-11 

26 

498 

44 

17-3 

3 

69 

25 

494-91 

23 

5 

3-12 

14 

3 

497-95 

13-5 

4-15 

36 

497 

93 

14-6 

3 

25 

26 

496-61 

17 

9 

3-68 

24 

4 

499-41 

11-3 

3-40 

34 

499 

20 

15-7 

2 

82 

21 

499 -.55 

19 

1 

2-02 

12 

5 

498-03 

12-9 

3-84 

35 

497 

63 

17-8 

2 

46 

16 

495-27 

21 

6 

0-00 

0 

6 

496-73 

11-8 

2-78 

27 

496 

66 

17-8 

1 

56 

10 

494-40 

20 

9 

1-28 

7 

7 

498-10 

14-1 

2-57 

21 

497 

98 

17-4 

1 

46 

10 

494-43 

22 

3 

0-00 

0 

8 

498-10 

14-6 

1-63 

13 

498 

03 

18-9 

0 

00 

0 

495-75 

22 

8 

0-00 

0 

9 

498-39 

14-6 

1-42 

11 

498 

13 

191 

1 

91 

11 

495-27 

24 

1 

1-37 

6 

10 

497-34 

14-3 

2-99 

24 

496 

94 

18-8 

1 

98 

11 

494-10 

22 

7 

1-74 

8 

11 

— 

— 

— 

— 

. 



— 

— 

494-71 

20 

7 

1-76 

10 

12 

497-49 

13-8 

3-08 

26 

497 

68 

19-1 

2 

84 

17 

495-87 

22 

4 

0-00 

0 

13 

500-93 

13-5 

2-94 

25 

500 

93 

17-9 

1 

84 

12 

498-31 

22 

9 

1-61 

8 

14 

500-77 

16-3 

3-36 

24 

500 

64 

19-5 

2 

47 

13 

497-70 

23 

4 

2-79 

13 

15 

500-37 

14-3 

3-67 

30 

500 

29 

18-9 

2 

85 

17 

497-25 

23 

8 

0-00 

0 

16 

499-30 

13-8 

3-63 

31 

498 

95 

17-9 

2 

29 

15 

496  10 

23 

5 

0-00 

0 

17 

497-39 

14  6 

3-14 

25 

494 

50 

18-2 

2 

57 

16 

495-47 

19 

3 

0-65 

3 

18 

497-91 

12-7 

3-96 

36 

500 

03 

17-4 

2 

70 

18 

494-98 

20 

8 

2-29 

12 

19 

496-25 

12-9 

4-51 

40 

495 

51 

17-5 

5 

00 

33 

494-53 

16 

4 

4-94 

35  ; 

20 

— 

9-3 

6-00 

69 

496 

43 

13-8 

5 

80 

49 

494-15 

17 

9 

3-, 57 

23  ! 

21 

497-73 

12-1 

4-10 

39 

497 

47 

16-0 

3 

54 

26 

494-96 

22 

4 

0-00 

0 

22 

498-08 

14-6 

3-14 

25 

497 

75 

18-4 

3 

38 

21 

494-76 

24 

1 

2-00 

9 

23 

498-21 

13-8 

3-97 

33 



— 

. — 

495-17 

23 

5 

3-37 

16 

24 

499-76 

12-4 

2-95 

27 

499 

78 

17-3 

2 

08 

14 

497 -.55 

23 

9 

1-13 

5 

25 

501-44 

14-1 

3-79 

31 

501 

39 

19-6 

2 

06 

12 

497-81 

25 

5 

2-16 

9 

26 

500-17 

14-6 

4-16 

34 

499 

66 

20-7 

2 

35 

13 

496-25 

26 

7 

2-59 

10' 

27 

497-17 

15-7 

4-07 

31 

496 

58 

210 

2 

76 

15 

492-80 

25 

9 

3-07 

12 

28 

495-22 

14-6 

4-74 

38 

494 

53 

20-4 

4 

24 

23 

492-29 

23 

4 

4-07 

19 

29 

496-39 

13-2 

3-99 

35 

496 

35 

16-2 

3 

65 

26 

493-90 

18 

7 

4-27 

26 

30 

— 

— 

— 

— 

496 

48 

21-2 

3 

38 

18 

493-01 

23 

1 

3-61 

17 

IJuly 

496-27 

15-7 

4-42 

33 

496 

27 

20-1 

3 

43 

19 

492-77 

24 

3 

5-11 

23 

2 

495-47 

15-2 

5-08 

39 

495 

39 

20-4 

3 

00 

17 

492-34 

24 

8 

4-13 

18 

3 

496-76 

15-7 

4-42 

33 

496 

94 

19-7 

5 

92 

35 

494-38 

25 

2 

5-93 

25 

4 

498-34 

17-4 

5-43 

36 

498 

00 

21-2 

5 

53 

29 

495-55 

23 

5 

5-86 

27 

5 

498-20 

16-8 

5-79 

41 

- 



_ 

. — 

496-61 

22 

1 

6-44 

33 

6 

497-44 

15-7 

6-70 

50 

497 

17 

19-5 

7 

09 

42 

493-82 

25 

1 

5-44 

23 

7 

497-09 

14-1 

5-04 

42 

496 

66 

18-9 

5 

14 

31 

493-61 

22 

7 

5-14 

25 

8 

496-22 

14-1 

5-04 

42 

495 

60 

18-5 

5 

00 

32 

493-59 

19 

0 

5-96 

36 

9 

498-90 

12-4 

4-14 

38 

498 

64 

16-6 

4 

82 

34 

495-44 

22 

3 

4-86 

24 

10 

498-90 

12-9 

4-51 

40 

498 

59 

17-9 

4 

15 

28 

495-27 

24 

0 

6-24 

28 

11 

498-13 

14-1 

4-47 

37 

497 

93 

19-9 

3 

67 

21 

494-68 

23 

9 

5-62 

26 

12 

497-05 

16-3 

7-09 

51 

497 

00 

18-8 

8 

45 

52 

494-20 

24 

1 

6-73 

30  ! 

13 

496-92 

15-4 

7-63 

59 

497 

19 

19-.^) 

8 

02 

48 

496-66 

20 

6 

8-87 

49  i 

14 

497-98 

15-4 

2-05 

69 

498 

08 

18-8 

7-90 

49 

495-14 

23 

3 

9-68 

46  1 

15 

497-63 

15-2 

8-39 

65 

— 

— 

— 

— 

493-87 

23-4 

8-44 

39 

I 

r  Pres 

sure.. 

4 

97-12  n. 

im. 

Calculate 

d  mean 

of 

<     Tern 
Teus 

lerature 
ion  of  vapou 

r 

18-3°  c. 
.■>-59  11 

111. 

Altimetric  Calculations. 


417 


Skardu. 


Hour  of  observations — 

8  a.m. 

10  a.m. 

4  p.m. 

Date. 

1?    lis 
II     ^r 

£ 

if 

^  =      -1  . 

1      J= 

£ 

;-  " 

Isi 

1   ^"z 

'It 

29  May 

580-21 

19-6 

6 

56 

39 

.579-70 

22 

3     4 

99 

25 

577-23 

27-5 

1-46 

!  5 

30 

. . 



. 



580-61 

22 

2      5 

18 

26 

577-45 

25-3 

1-52 

6 

.31 

579-58 

18-7 

6 

53 

40 

579-19 

22 

3      4 

86 

24 

575-75 

27-0 

1-25 

5 

1  June 

576-63 

18-6 

5 

19 

33 

576-84 

20 

8     4 

11 

22 

575  13 

24-9 

3-41 

15 

-> 

576-84 

18-3 

6 

91 

43 

.576-75 

19 

5      5 

65 

34 

574 -.30 

24-3 

5-50 

24  1 

.3 

577-97 

16-3 

8 

77 

64 

577-67 

20 

4     8 

16 

46 

575-28 

23-8 

3-44 

16 

4 

577-72 

19-4 

7 

28 

43 

.577-32 

23 

1      5 

03 

24 

.573-97 

27-7 

3  05 

12 

5 

578-07 

20-3 

5 

17 

29 

.')75-13 

23 

8      2 

.30 

10 

572-61 

26-5 

1-17 

4 

6 

574-50 

20-1 

5 

04 

29 

574-04 

23 

6      2 

04 

9 

572-09 

27-6 

3-11 

11 

7 

576-23 

19-2 

3 

26 

19 

575-72 

22 

9     2 

.35 

11 

.572-04 

29-7 

1-43 

4 

8 

576-23 

20-0 

3 

37 

19 

.575-97 

23 

7      3 

50 

16 

573-66     29-2 

1-46 

4 

9 

576-48 

19-9 

4 

91 

28 

576-23 

23 

7      2 

49 

11 

573-31     29-1 

2-59 

8 

10 

574-81 

19-9 

3 

43 

20 

574-46 

24 

3     3 

53 

16 

571-89 

27-9 

2-40 

8 

11 



_ 

— 

— 

— 

573-80 

23-7 

4-21 

18 

12 

576-23 

18-8 

6 

21 

38 

.576-07 

23 

7     4 

14 

19 

.574 -.53 

26-6 

1-74 

7 

13 

579-12 

20-4 

6 

28 

35 

578-81 

23 

3     4 

91 

23 

.576-15 

28-7 

1-91 

6 

14 

578-67 

23-7 

4 

02 

18 

578-49 

25 

2     3 

75 

16 

.575-95     27-4 

2-56 

9 

15 

578-21 

20-4 

5 

50 

31 

.577-80 

24 

2      5 

03 

22 

575-69 

27-7 

3 -.31 

12 

16 

576-23 

20-2 

5 

36 

30 

576-28 

24 

9     4 

21 

18 

574-78 

26-3 

2-57 

10 

17 

575-46 

19-2 

5 

96 

36 

575-11 

22 

6     4 

81 

23 

572  -  70 

27-0 

2-94 

11 

18 

574-70 

20-8 

6 

17 

34 

574-35 

24 

3     3 

78 

17 

571-32 

30-0 

3-29 

10 

19 

575-11 

21-1 

5 

72 

31 

572  16 

24 

9     4 

60 

19 

570-36 

25-5 

3-84 

16 

20 



21-4 

4 

00 

21 

.575-36 

23 

7      5 

80 

27 

573-13 

22-6 

3-53 

17 

21 

575-72 

18-2 

7 

35 

47 

575-21 

21 

9      5 

11 

26 

.572-04 

28-6 

2-63 

8 

22 

575-08 

20-4 

4 

86 

27 

574-65 

24 

2     3 

20 

14 

572-85 

28-9 

1-65 

5 

23 

575-11 

22-6 

4 

42 

22 

— 

- 

_ 

— 

573-31 

28-2 

0-00 

0 

24 

576-88 

20-5 

3 

91 

22 

576  -94 

24 

7     3 

40 

15 

574 -.37 

.30-6 

1-42 

4 

25 

579-32 

22-2 

2 

53 

13 

578-89 

25 

8     2 

61 

11 

.576-15 

33-2 

0-00 

0 

26 

577-60 

23-1 

4 

25 

20 

577-11 

25 

8     1 

97 

8 

573-20 

32-2 

1-12 

3 

27 

573-74 

23-2 

3 

80 

17 

573-26 

26 

9     2 

86 

11 

.569-80 

31-8 

1-50 

4 

28 

572-67 

21-3 

6 

12 

33 

572 -.32 

23 

6     5 

00 

23 

.569-70 

27-1 

3-67 

14 

29 

572-97 

21-4 

6 

87 

36 

572-66 

23 

8     5 

68 

26 

570-10 

28-1 

2-81 

10 

30 

— 

— 

— 

574-91 

21 

5     5 

48 

29 

.571-58 

28-2 

1-55 

5 

IJuly 

573-79 

21-5 

3-82 

20 

573-48 

25 

3     3 

83 

16 

570-21 

31-6 

2-31 

6 

2 

572-52 

22-5 

4 

22 

21 

572-48 

26 

3     2 

18 

8 

.569-80 

.33  1 

0-00 

0 

3 

573-89 

21-9 

3 

95 

20 

.573-79 

26 

8     2 

40 

9 

571-38 

21-5 

8-60 

45 

4 

574-47 

24-4 

4 

78 

21 

573-97 

27 

1      5 

05 

19 

572-59 

31-3 

3-35 

10 

5 

575-26 

23-2 

4 

71 

22 



— 

— 

572-29 

29-2 

2-81 

9 

6 

575-26 

18-2 

8 

14 

52 

575-57 

19 

7     7 

23 

42 

,574-35 

25-1 

5-85 

25 

7 

575-67 

16-3 

8 

63 

62 

.575-82 

17 

6     7 

98 

53 

572-49 

27-3 

4-79 

18 

8 

572-77 

19-6 

6 

11 

36 

573-43 

20 

3     5 

95 

34 

575-36 

16-3 

7-72 

56 

9 

578-61 

15-6 

8 

67 

66 

578-56 

17 

6     7 

46 

50 

575-13 

25-4 

3-77 

15 

10 

576-97 

19-8 

6 

12 

35 

576-68 

23 

1      4 

38 

21 

573-20 

29-8 

2-58 

8 

11 

575-26 

20-6 

4 

62 

25 

574-91 

24 

3     4 

05 

18 

571-53 

32-4 

1-82 

5 

12 

573-05 

23-4 

5 

66 

26 

.572-90 

28 

0     5 

92 

21 

.570-87 

31-9 

2-98 

9 

13 

573-53 

23-4 

8 

01 

37 

573-66 

25 

6     8 

12 

33 

572-24 

29-3 

7-52 

25 

14 

574-40 

21-1 

6 

64 

35 

574-27 

26-9     5-59 

21 

.572-70 

26-0 

5-86 

23 

15 

573-84 

20-8 

10-02 

55 

— 

—         — 

— 

572-54 

28-6 

5-85 

20 

Pies, 

sure... 

. 

'•74-83  nun. 

Calc 

ulated  mean 

I  of 

-     Tern 
^  Tens 

jerature 
ion  of  vapoi 

ir 

24-0°  c. 
-4-7  mm. 

(9221) 


2  D 


418 


Appendix  B. 


GiLGIT. 


Hour  of  observations—    8  a.m. 

lu  a.m. 

4  p.m. 

Date. 

£         si  1 

is      s.g 
|s      it 

^          1    fS    1 

g|.  It 

II 

i£ 

h2 

IK 

s 

^3. 

III' 

1 
29  Mav 

636-36     26-7  ' 

7-30     28 

1 
635-80  ' 

29-4 

5-96 

19 

632-14 

33-6 

6-29 

16 

30 

. — 

—       — 

636-56 

29-9 

6-10 

19 

632-40 

34-7 

3-46 

8 

31 

634-49     26-1 

6-94     28 

634-73 

29-7  , 

5-33 

17 

630-47 

31-6 

8-30 

24 

1  June  ' 

633-28     24-8 

8-75     38 

632-55 

27-7 

7-29 

26 

632-53 

25-6 

8-72 

35 

•2             ■ 

634-56     20-3 

9-89     56 

631-79 

21-3 

10-15 

54 

630-87 

20-3 

14-75 

83 

3 

636-21     18-9 

12-80     79 

633-26 

22-6 

10-25 

50 

631-53 

30-2 

6-66 

21 

4 

634-56     24-1 

10-39     47 

633-82 

28-1 

5-86 

21 

629-99 

34-6 

4-12 

10 

5 

632-07     25-7 

5-35     22 

631-61     29-2 

4-47 

15 

630-24 

34-4 

4-0» 

10 

6 

631-76     27-8 

4-62     17 

631-30 

30-9 

2-60 

1 

628-56 

34-3 

1-51 

4  ! 

7 

632-37     26-7 

5-29     20 

631  05 

27-6 

5-17 

19 

627-49 

36-4 

4-26 

9 

8 

632-29     27-2 

5-41     20 

631-02 

31-4 

4-00 

11 

629-30 

36-7 

3-00 

G 

a 

632-40     28-0 

4-23     15 

630-92 

32-9 

3-22 

8 

628-39 

36-1 

5-70 

12 

10 

630-47     26-7 

9-72     37 

629-96 

31-8 

3-76 

10 

626  07 

33-9 

6-74 

17 

11 

—          — 

—        — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

625-72 

32-3 

5-23 

15 

12 

631-18     27-1 

8-10     30 

626-78 

30-4 

5-34     17 

624-95 

35-7 

3-30 

7 

13 

634-63     27-1 

8-40     31 

632-85 

30-9 

7  15     22 

630-38 

35-0 

5-43 

12 

14 

634-60     26-7 

11-46     44 

633-92 

32-8 

7  -  25 

20 

631-30 

33-9 

5-01 

12  1 

15 

633-94     27-3 

7-98     30 

633-36 

31   1 

7-18 

21 

629-52 

34-4 

5-02     13  j 

16 

632-45     27-3 

9-35     35 

630-67 

29-9 

7-15 

23 

628-76 

32-4 

3-97     11 

17 

631-27     27-2 

9-42     35 

631 • 10 

30- 1 

7-95     25 

629-16 

34-8 

4-00       9 

18 

630-57     27-2 

8-04     30 

629-24 

32-7 

6-84 

18 

625-84 

37-6 

4-79     10 

19 

628-25     28-8 

6-77     23 

626-10 

32-4 

5-94 

16 

625-64 

33-7 

6-23 

16 

20 

—         27-0 

8-01     30 

628-89 

30-2 

6-66 

21 

627-95 

29-0 

5-16 

17 

21 

631-33     25-6 

8-86     36 

630-82 

29-4 

6-55 

21 

628-20 

37-2 

3-61 

8 

22 

631-08     27-2 

6-42     24 

628-73 

31-3 

5-93 

18 

627-89 

32-3 

9-50 

27 

23 

630-87     29-4 

8-08     26 

— 

— 

— 

— 

627-79 

34-4 

5-48 

13 

24 

633-21     26-6 

11-20     43 

631-84 

30-3 

615 

19 

626-98 

37-8 

3-40 

7 

25 

634-32     26-7 

11-14     43 

633-74 

32-2 

4-26 

12 

630  13 

39-2 

3-65 

7 

26 

630-64     30-8 

5-10     16 

630-84 

33-9 

4-56 

11 

627-71 

40-6 

3-76 

7 

27 

627-69     30-0 

8-18     26 

626-65     34-1 

5-35 

13 

622-97 

39-8 

4-24 

8" 

28 

626  07     30-0 

5-88     19 

625-14     31-1 

5-81 

18 

623-27 

34-9 

7-10     17  1 

29 

626-47     27-6 

6-17     22 

628-46 

29-2 

6-82 

22 

630-11 

32-5 

4-36 

12  1 

30 

—          — 

—       — 

630-89 

30-3 

7-21 

22 

630-97 

34  1 

7-25 

18  i 

1  July 

629-65     27-6 

5-45     20 

628-86 

31-8 

3-61 

10 

625  03 

37-8 

2-16      4  i 

2 

628-51     29-0 

5-90     20 

626-30 

32-6 

2-98 

7 

624  01 

39-2 

4-29 

8 

3 

628-25     29-0 

8-32     28 

628-18 

33-4 

3-96 

10 

625-33 

36-8 

5-93 

12 

4 

629-32     31  1 

7-65     23 

629  06 

33  0 

6-82 

18 

626-73 

36-2 

6-13 

13  1 

5 

630-08     27-9    10-24     37 

— 

— 

— 

— 

630-23 

29-2 

5-79 

19  i 

6 

630-62     24-0 

10-76     49 

630-57 

24-1 

11-11 

50 

628-20 

29-4 

8-54 

28 

7 

629-35  1  25-9 

9-13     37 

1  629-40 

29-6 

7-95 

26 

627-03 

30-7 

8-53 

26 

8 

629-37     22-2 

8-74     44 

624-81 

17-6 

13-61 

91 

632-77 

19-9 

13-88     80 

9 

636-78     19-7 

11-72     69 

635-06 

22-6    12-23 

60 

630-64 

30-8 

8-00 

24 

,  10 

632-16     24-8 

9-21     39 

631-50 

26-4 

11-65 

45 

627-95 

34-9 

6-77 

16 

11 

629-81     27-6 

9-48     34 

627-54 

29-4 

11-29 

1  37 

625-61 

36-8 

0-00 

0 

12 

628-46     27-2 

;  10-67     40 

627-84 

27-9 

12-37 

44 

627-69 

28-3 

14-00 

.49 

13 

627-89     24-0 

12-32     56 

622-79 

25-0 

11-74 

43 

625-61 

36-1 

0-00 

0 

14 

629-11     30-5 

'    9-30     29 

628-91 

34-0 

6-21 

16 

626-65 

36-8 

5-76 

12 

15 

628-61     27-8 

10-95     39 

— 

— 

— 

— 

629-22 

28-2 

8-80 

31 

1 

Pressure 

1 

029-83  mm. 

Calculated  mean  of 

<    Temperature 
Tensiou  of  vapour 

30-05°  c. 
T'O  mm. 

Altimetric  Calculation.s. 


'119 


C. — Comparison  ok  Simultaneous  Observations. 


Date. 

CAMP  III. 

RDOKASS. 

SKARDl'. 

o              c 

Tension  of 
vapour. 

lluniiility. 

4/ 

■•X 
_  •— 

-11 

.1        H 

3            % 

i       i 

-          i 

2 

St:" 

z 

II 

£ 

29May  ... 

8 '417-60 

1 

-1-5    2-08  |51 

471-34 

5-8 

2 -.50 

36   580-21     19-6 

6 -.56 

39 

10   418-0.5 

5-4 

1-39 

21    471-69 

8-8 

1-19 

14   579-70    22-3 

4-99 

25 

4   417-55 

3-0    2-17 

38   470-79 

9-8 

0-.50 

7    577-23     27-5 

1-46 

5 

30     „     ... 

10   418-41 

7-1     4-24 

56   472-33 

8-8 

2-57 

30   .580-61     22-2 

5-18 

26 

4   418-48 

30     1-34     24    471-19 

10-3 

0-49 

5    577-45     25-3 

1-52 

6 

31     „     ... 

10   417-58 

3-0 

1-34     24   472-14 

8-3 

2-87 

35   579-19 

22-3 

4-86 

24 

4   417-43 

3-0    2-17     38   570-50 

11-8 

1-27 

12   575-75 

27-0 

1-25 

5 

IJune ... 

10   415 -88 

3-5     1-08     19   469-85 

11-3 

1-57 

15    576-84 

20-8 

411 

22 

4    416-02 

3-5 

1-91     32 

469-32 

8-8 

2 -.57 

30   575-13 

24-9 

3-41 

15 

2     „     ... 

8    4J5-56 

-1-7 

2-32    70 

469-22 

4-8 

4-06 

62   576-84 

18-3 

6-91 

43 

10   415-33 

2-5 

2-43    44 

469-18 

5-8 

3-86 

55   576-75 

19-5 

5-65 

34 

4   414-83 

3-5 

1-01     32 

468-34 

4-8 

4-75 

73    574 -.-?0 

24-3 

5 -.50 

24 

3     „     ... 

8   414-80 

0-0 

3-74    85 

468-99 

2-4 

3-58 

65    .577-97 

16-3 

8-77 

64 

10   415-25 

1-0 

3-22     65 

469  -84 

5-3 

4-15 

62   577-67 

20-4 

8-16 

46 

4   415-76 

0-0 

3-74    81 

469-67 

2-8 

3-81 

67    575-28 

23-8 

3-44 

16 

4     

8   41610 

0-0 

4-lfi    91 

471-05 

6-3 

1-26 

17   577-72 

19-4 

7-28 

43 

10   416-32 

30 

2-17    .38 

470-81 

8-8 

0-71 

9   577 -.-52 

23-1 

5-03 

24 

4   416-50 

3-0 

0-93     17 

470-01 

13-7 

0-00 

0   573-97 

27-7 

3  05 

12 

5     „     ... 

8   414-96 

2-0 

1-04     20 

470-11 

3-8 

2-12 

35    578-07 

20-3 

5-17 

29 

10   415-62 

5-1 

107     17    469-49 

7-8  : 

0-83 

10   575-13 

23-8 

2-30 

10 

4    415-13 

2-0 

1-04     20 

467-81 

9-1 

0.53 

6   572-61 

26-5 

1-17 

4 

9     „     ... 

4    416-36 

5  0 

0-29       5 

468-96 

12-3 

0-00 

0   573-31 

29-1 

2-.-)ii 

8 

10     „     ... 

8   414-81 

0-0 

2-09    45 

468-77 

4-8 

1-69 

26   574-81 

19-9 

3-43 

20 

10   414-77 

6-1 

1-44     20 

468-41 

8-3 

0-54 

7   574-46 

24-3 

3-53 

16 

4   414-19 

4-0 

1-64     27 

466-74 

9-8 

0-59 

7   571-89 

27-9 

2-40 

8 

11     „     ... 

4    414-17 

ro 

1-17 

23 

467-41  ' 

7-8 

1-79 

22    .573-80 

23-7 

4-21 

18 

Mean 


..  416-05        2-6     2-00 


469-74  1     7-8     1-91 


575-32     23-1      4  29 


(9221) 


2  D  2 


420 


Appendix   B. 


Camp  III  (second  base-camp). 


SRINAGAK. 


LEU. 


QILGIT. 


a" 


gs 


29  May  . 

30  „     . 

31  „     . 

1  June  . 

2  „     . 


4  „ 

5  „ 

9  ,, 

10  „ 

11  „ 


8  C29 

30 

17 

4 

11- 

10  629 

45 

21 

3  14- 

16 1  627 

21 

29 

2  22  * 

10  629 

83 

24 

0 

16 

16  627 

62 

27 

8 

20- 

10  628 

64 

23 

0 

15- 

16  625 

99 

26 

8 

19^ 

10  627 

60 

21 

9 

15 1 

16  626 

12 

23 

4  16- 

8  629 

12 

16 

6  U- 

10  628 

58 

19 

7  12- 

16  628 

43 

17 

9  11- 

8  629 

60 

16 

3 

12^ 

10  629 

80 

18 

8 

13- 

16  626 

81 

24 

1 

17- 

8  628 

01 

17 

i 

12- 

10  628 

23 

21 

3 

14^ 

16  624 

85 

27 

2 

20  • 

8  625 

90 

19 

4  13- 

10  625 

64 

23 

0  !-)• 

16  624 

47 

24 

8 

18- 

16  623 

•42 

30 

0 

22 

8  624 

91 

21 

3 

14 

10  625 

•06 

25 

6 

17 

16  623 

•79 

27 

5 

21 

80  501-66 

77  501 -51 

74  498-54 

75  501^79 
73  499-08 


72   83   500-98 
31    74   497-81 


05 
33 

87 
92 
94 

05 
62 
29 


77  498-90 
76  496-05 


84 
76 

78 

87 
84 
78 


498-98 
498^44 
494^91 

497^95 
497^93 
496-61 


06  80  499^41 
29  76  499-20 
02  75  499-55 


498-03 
497-63 
495-27 


12-7 
16-7 
21-0 

17-3 
20-5 

17-7 
21-3 

174 
22-4 

14-1 
17-3 
23-5 

13  5 
14^6 
17^9 

11^3 
15-7 
19^1 

12-9 
17-8 
21-6 


93 
62 
20 


497-34 
496-94 
494-10 


14-3 

18-8 
22-7 


1-92 
1-44 
0-00 

1-86 
1-64 


17  636-36 

10  635^80 

0  63214 

12  636^56 
9  632  40 


267  7^30 
29^4  5^96 
336   629 


1-84  12  634  73 
2-70  14  630-47 


2-47 
0-00 


16 
0 


311  26 
3^69  25 
3-12  1 14 

I 
4-15  36 
3-25  26 
3  ■  68  24 


632-55 
632-53 

634-56 
631-79 
630-87 

636-21 
633-26 
631-53 


29-7 
31-6 

27^7 
25^6 

20-3 
21-3 
20-3 

18-9 
22-6 
30-2 


5-33 
8-30 

7-29 

8-72 

9-89 
10-15 
14-75 
i 
12-80 
10-25 

6-66 


3-40 
2-82 
2-02 

3-84 
2-46 
0-00 


34  634-56 
21  633-82 
12  629-99 

35  632-07 
16  631-61 

0  630-24 


24- 1  10-39 
28-1  5^86 
346      4121 


93   73   495^27    24-1     1-37 


2-99 
1^98 
1^74 


25^7 
29^2 
344 


535' 

4^47 
4^09 


28 
19 
16 


29-9      6-10'  19 
347  1    3-46      8 


17 
24 

26 
35 

56 
54 
83 

79 
50 
21 

47 
21 
10 

22 
15 
10 


I 


6   628-39    361      5-70    12 


24   630-47 

11   629^96 

8   626^07 


26^7 
31^8 
33-9 


16   625^23l  22-6     15  97   78   494  71     207     176  '  lO!  625-72 '  32-3 


9-72 
3-76 
6-74 


37 

10 
17 


5-23    15 


Mean 


627-061  22-6     1607 


1498-03    1-79     2-28 


632-09:  28-4      7-25 


Altimetric  Calculations. 


421 


D. — Comparison"  of  Observations  Made  on  the  Godwin  Austex, 
Savoia,  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers. 


No. 

Date 

Station  of  observation. 

Simultanec 

us  .lata  of  comparison. 

0 

llv 

a 

i           ^S 

Month 
and  day. 

Hour. 

Place. 

3 

If     if 

ill 

Of  the 

sUtion  of 

3 

s 

s        £| 

-  0  — 

s 

"                 ^  %. 

^ 

w3 

=s 

I        ^t 

"3, 

May 

10 

Camp  IV     ... 

.390-85 

2-0    1-04 

Fortin 

Camp  III 

1 
417-58     3-0   1-34 

4 

390-55 

-  1-0    1-04 

fj 

417-43      3-0   2-17 

1  .June 

10 

389-78 

1-9    1-18 

)» 

415-88      3-5    1-08 

4 

Mean... 

388-85 

-  1-0    1-04 

»> 

416-02     3-5    1-91 

390  00 

0-2   1-07 

416-72 

3-2   1-62 

31  May 

10 

Camp  IV     ... 

390-85 

2-0   1-04 

»» 

Rdokass 

472  14 

1-3   2-17 

4 

390-55 

-  1-0   1-04 

)j 

470-50 

11-8    1-27 

1  June 

10 

389-78 

1-0   1-18 

>» 

469-85 

11-3    1-57 

4 

Mean . . . 

388-85 

-  1-0    1-04 

»» 

469-32 

8-8   2-57 

390-00 

0-2    1-07 

470-45    100   2-07 

5 

}1 

4 

Camp  V 

.394-05 

-  3-0   2-86 

>) 

Camp  III 

415  15 

2-0   1-04 

5 

)l 

4 

394-05 

-  30   2-86 

»* 

467-81 

9-1   0-53 

8 

.393-36 

-  8-0    1-.39 

)> 

468-18 

5-3   4-65 

6 

)J 

10 

Camp  V 

393-42 

-  2-0   3-96 

?i 

Rdokasa 

468-29 

7-8   0-37 

4 

393-82 

-  2-5    2-21 

»» 

467-66 

10-3   0-00 

8 

395-34 

-  5-0   1-27 

)) 

469-61      4-3    1-43 

8 

»» 

10 

Mean... 

395-42 

-  3-0   2-09 

>» 

469-45     8-3   0-00 

394-23 

-  3-9   2-30 

468-50 

7-5    1-16 

7 

»» 

5.15 

Savoia  Pass... 

349-70 

-  9-0     — 

)» 

Rdokass 

467-86 

12-7   0-00 

12 

>» 

10 

395-71 

-  2-0   2.34 

») 

469-86 

7-3   2-57 

,13 

)) 

8 

.397-37 

-  10   3-43 

)) 

471-86 

3-8   417 

10 

397-65 

3-0   2-17 

u 

472-11 

9-3    1-77 

4 

.397-94 

00  3-74 

»i 

472-11 

10-8   0-87 

21 

»» 

8 

Camp  VI     ... 

394-23 

-  6-0   2-89 

*) 

Rdokass 

468-26 

4-8   3-57 

10 

.39  4 -.50 

-  1-0    1-82 

)» 

468-00     8-3   2-36 

4 

394-15 

6-0   0-.59 

»» 

466-88    12-7   0-69 

22 

}f 

8 

355-42 

-  3-0 

1.33 

») 

468-33     6-3    173 

10 

395-25 

1-5 

2-12 

J) 

468-08   10-3   0-78 

4 

Mean... 

395-76 

0-5 

1-04 

» 

467-66   12-7   0-00 

395-90 

-  0-2 '2-15 

469-32 

8-63   1-85 

15 

» 

11.15 

Sella  Pass   ... 

368-85 

-  3-0'    — 

l> 

Hdokass 

471-57 

8-3     — 

14 

I> 

4 

.373-51 

-  0-5   2-04 

)) 

471-29 

10-3   1-67 

15 

»J 

8 

.373-40 

-  7-0   1-22 

:i 

471-53     6-3   2-68 

4 

.373-28 

-  4-5    1-37 

)» 

470-56    12-7   0-24 

16 

)l 

10 

Camp  VII  ... 

372-71 

-  3-0   2-09 

»» 

Kdokass 

470-41 

9-3  0-89 

18 

>1 

10 

4 

.372  18 
.370-85 

-  7-0   2-67 

-  4-0   2-61 

468-41 
466-53 

9-1    1-21 
12-7   0-00 

19 

If 

4 

.369-43 

-  6-0   2-89 

}} 

46600     8-8   207 

20 

?» 

8 

Mean... 

369-04 

-  9-0   2-26. 

1) 

466-26     7-8   4- 16 

371-80 

-  5-8   2-14 

1 

468-88     9-1    1-62 

24 

>» 

4 

Camp  VIII... 

.360-78 

-  6-0'l-77 

n 

Rdokass 

469-66   14-7   000 

25 

.. 

1 

Staircase 

.348-30 

6-0 

— 

» 

Rdokass 

471-86 

14-7     -    1 

(9221) 


422 


.\.])|)t'iulix   I). 


D. — CoMPARISOiV    OF    (.)BSERVATI0XS    MaDE   ON    THE    GoDWIN    AuSTEN, 

Savoia,  and  Upper  Baltoro  Glaciers.  i.co,M.) 


No. 

Date 

Station  of  obfiervatiou. 

Simultaneous  data  of  comparison. 

Month 
and  ilay. 

Hour. 

Pla.e. 

5 

1 

=  z 

Z 

■si 

=  =  £■ 

III 

—  t  " 

Oi"  tlie 
stutioii  uf 

I 

i 

P 

I! 
II 

1 

July 

10 

431-33 

11-0 

5-04 

Fortin 

468-43 

10-3 

0-78 

4 

431-33 

12-0 

3-36 

)) 

466-80 

14-2 

0-00 

2 

1% 

8 

431-23 

4-0 

3-54 

■) 

466-81 

7-8 

1-31 

4 

431-33 

15-0 

4-85 

-»11 

466-71 

14-3 

0-00- 

3 

)* 

8 

432-69 

4-0 

3-16 

Ji 

468-61 

6-8 

1-91 

10 

Caniii  IX     ... 

422-65 

11-0 

2-83 

•» 

Rdokass 

468-81 

11-3 

0-58 

4 

432-56 

14-5 

2-87 

ji 

467-47 

15-7 

0-00 

4 

}* 

8 

433-55 

7-0 

3 -.30 

)f 

469-61 

8-3 

3-37 

10 

434-49 

9-0 

311 

»1 

469-39 

12-7 

2-82 

5 

>} 

4 

434-55 

11-5 

3-06 

}1 

468 -.56 

15-2 

0-00 

8 

433-01 

2-0 

3-41 

u 

469-56 

5-8 

6-42 

4 

Mean... 

432-95 

10-5 

6-40 

)J 

467-51 

13-2 

2-52 
1-64 

432-62 

9-3 

3-74 

468-19 

]1'3 

1 

*» 

4 

Camp  X 

428-30 

5-0 



Hvps. 

Rflokass 

466-80 

14-2 



7 

»» 

4 

Camp  XI 

418-34 

4-0 

— 

Fort  in 

Ktlokass 

466-98 

10-3 

— 

3 

II 

4 

Camp  XII   ... 

.•593-87 

8-0 

4-12 

11 

Rdokass 

467-47 

15-7 

0-00; 

5 

)> 

4 

393-65 

7-0 

3-20 

1) 

467-51 

13-2 

2-52' 

6 

1* 

10 

.-592-98 

12-0 

2-23 

)» 

468-53 

7-8 

4-18 

4 

392-38 

7-5 

2-90 

ij 

467-79 

5-8 

5-38 

7 

'J 

10 

Mean... 

392-53 

11-0 

2-63 

n 

467-86 

5-8 

4-86 

393-08 

9-1 

3-05 

467-83 

9-7 

3-39 

9 

11 

5 

Camp  XIII 

377-71 

8-0 

0-31 

<i 

Edokass 

468-98 

10-3   1-67, 

10 

J) 

4 

3.54-40 

3-0 

0-52 

i» 

467-98 

13-7   0-00 

14 

)} 

10 

Camp  XIV... 

354  - 10 

3-0 

2-17 

*i 

Rdokass 

469-12 

10-3   4-26 

4 

354 -.35 

1-0 

4-01 

» 

469-10 

11-8   3-90 

358-28 

2-3 

2-20 

468-73 

11-9   2-72 

11 

» 

4 

Camp  XV  (i) 

342-12 

0-0 



»» 

Rdokass 

467-72 

15-7     — 

17 

4 

Camp  XV  (ii) 

3.35-74 

5-0 



»» 

Skardu  ... 

.572-11 

30-4     — 

18 

)i 

2.. 30 

Nearest  Bride 
Peak 

312-33 

6-0 

4-18 

1 

»» 

Leh 

Siinagar 
Skardu  ... 
GUgit    ... 

494-99 
622-85 
571 -45 
627-08 

24-9  10-51 
291  22-65 
31-9     7-65 
31-9  14-11 

1 

Altimetric  Calculations. 


423 


Comparison  of  Observations  Made  on  the  Returx  Journey. 


Date. 

Station  of  observation. 

Simultaneous  data  of  comparison. 

No. 

Month 

and  day. 

Hour. 

Place 

i 

i 

S 

li 

S 

^1 

II. 
=  =  :: 

ill 

<^3. 

Of  the 
station  of 

5  ? 

*  3 

r  i. 

28  July  ... 

11     Xorthem 

470-34 

ir,-8 

1-43 

Fort  in 

Leh      ... 

4f)7-27 

20-7 

10-51 

camp      of 

Skardu 

.■)73-48 

29-2 

3-37 

Skoro-La 

Gilgit  ... 

628-69 

36-2 

0-00 

29    „      ... 

11 

Skoro-La... 

413-27 

6-4 

n 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 
Gilgit  .  . 

497-39 
.573-73 
613-89 

18-4 
25-1 
32-3 

— 

1  August 

4 

Camp     be- 
t  \v  e  e  II 

504-63 

19-4 

5-84 

»i 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 

406-92 
.•■)73-84 

23-5 
31-1 

8-10 
6-26 

' 

Skardu  and 

Gilgit  ... 

631-23 

30-2 

12-84 

iJurgi-La 

2        „ 

9.. 50 

Burgi-La... 

427-65 

9-4 



)) 

Leh      .. 

498-4.5 

20-9 

_ 

Skardu 

574-78 

28 

9 



Gilgit  ... 

630-41 

31 

9      — 

3        „ 

4 

Chuudu- 

469-81 

l.i-3 

4-66 

J) 

Leh      ... 

495  02 

23 

3     8-07 

Kut 

Skardu 
Gilgit  ... 

571-65 
626-30 

27 
33 

2 
9 

6-86 
7-06 

4        „ 

9.50 

Sarsingar... 

455-81 

11-9 



n 

Leh      ... 

497-84 

20 

6 

_ 

Skardu 

575-11 

23 

9 



Gilgit  ... 

630-69 

29 

7 

— 

4        „ 

12.50 

Stakpi-la... 

470-61 

18-9 

»» 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 
Gilgit  ... 

497-84 
575-11 
630-69 

20 
23 
29 

6 
9 

7 

— 

4        „ 

4 

Burzil       ... 

605-22 

19-9 

6-77 

;> 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 
Gilgit  ... 

494-61    22 
571    19   30 
625-43   35 

7 

7 
9 

7 -.59 

6-35 

10-91 

•''        ., 

4 

Pashwari... 

570  07 

19-9 

— 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 

495-98    21 
573-33    24 

6 

4 

— 

Gilgit  ... 

629-29 

28 

1       -     1 

1    R 
b         „ 

4 

Gurais 

591-28 

15-8 

11-93 

)) 

Leh      ... 

494-54 

20 

1 

6-33 

Skardu 

572-72    23 

0 

11-06 

Gilgit  ... 

61006 

27 

9 

14-08 

!   7       „ 

4 

GorJ; 

546-42 

15-8 

10-54 

J) 

Leh      .. 

494-69 

23 

9 

6-16 

Skardu 

573-68    -25 

4 

914 

1 

Gilgit  ... 

629-98 

26 

7 

15-17 

8        „ 

8 

Rajdiangan 

497-59 

12-8 

5-02 

Fortin 

Leh      ... 

497-48 

17 

9 

6-75 

Pass 

Skardu 

575-57    16 

1 

10-77 

Gilgit  ... 

622-50 

21 

2 

14-41 

9        „ 

4 

Ti-agbal    ... 

540-38 

20-9 

— 

Hyps. 

Leh      ... 
Skardu 

494-33 
574-90 

23 

27 

5 
4 

— 

Gilgit    .. 

629-01 

29-7 

(9221) 


2  0  4 


424 


Appendix  B. 


Final  Summing-up  of  Statistics  of  Heicjht. 


stations. 


No. 


Of  observation. 


t 


Of  reference. 


Height 
above  sea 

level  of 
stations  of 
reference. 


Difference 

in  height 

between 

stations  of 

observation 

and  of 
reference. 

metres. 


IIii(!lit  aliiive  sea  level  of 
stations  of  observation. 


.-  +  Z 

metres. 


Metres.       Feet. 


10 


11 


12 


Baltal     ... 

Mutajun... 

Olthingtliang 

Tarkutta 

Kharmang 

Tolti 

Shigar    . . . 

Dusso 

Gomboro 

Chongo  ... 

Askoley  ... 

Punmah... 


13     Paiju 


Srinagar 
Leh 
Skardu 
Gilgit 

Srinagar 
Leh 
Skardn 
Gilgit 

Uh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 
Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 
Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 
Gilgit 

Leh 

Skardu 

Gilgit 


Hyps. 


Fortin 


Hyps. 


Fortin 


1,586 
3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

1,586 
3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 


1,266 
716 
.-)18 

1,342 

1,527 
309 
935 

l,7.'i3 

789 

487 

1,292 

1,063 

225 

1,034 

1,110 
179 
985 

1,162 
114 
952 

1,258 

17 

830 

1,153 
108 
963 

1,006 

255 

1,089 

588 

684 

1,525 

451 

753 

1,.501 

422 

816 

1,643 

185 
1,062 
1,892 


2,852     2,822 
2,799 

2,805 
2,831 


3,113 
3,197 
3,222 
3,243 

2,717 
2,774 

2,782 

2,443 
2,512 
2,.524 

2,396 
2,466 

2,475 

2,344 

2,401 
2,442 

2,248 
2,304 
2,320 

2,353 
2,395 
2,453 

2,500 
2,542 
2,579 

2,918 
2,971 
3,015 

3,056 
3,040 
3,060 

3,084 
3,103 
3,1.33 

3,321 
3,349 
3,382 


3,194 


2,758 


2,493 


2,446 


2,396 


2,968 
3,052 


9,259 


10,479 


9,049 


8,179 


8,025 


,861 


2,291       7,517 


2,400  '     7,874 


2,540  !     8,333 


9,738 


10,013 


3,107     10,194 


3,350     10,991 


Altimetric  Calculations. 


•125 


Final  Summing-up  of  Statistics  of  Height. 


(Contd.) 


No. 

Stations. 

1 
1 

1 

3 

Height 
above  sea 

level  of 
stations  of 
reference. 

Difference 

in  lieight 

betwi-en 

stations  of 

observation 

and  of 
reference. 

Ueiglit  above  sea  level  of     , 
stations  of  observation. 

Of  observation. 

Of  reference. 

:  +  Z 

metres. 

Metres. 

Feet. 

d 
2 

^ 

metres. 

Z 

metres. 

1 
14     Between    Liligo 
and  Rholjutse 

i 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
GUgit    ... 

1 

Fort  in 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

201 
1,436 
2,261 

3,707 
3,723 
3,751 

3,727 

12,228 

15 

Rdokass 

1st  base  camp 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 
Srinagar 

137 

„ 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 
1,586 

492 
1,7.34 
2,540 
2,465 

3,998 
4,021 
4,030 
4,051 

4,025 

13,206 

16 

Camp  III 

2nd  base  camp 

Rdokass 
Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Srinagar 
Gilgit    ... 

26 

ii 

4,025 
3,506 
2,287 
1,586 
1,490 

994 
1,.500 
2,728 
3,464 
3,556 

.■),019 
5,006 
5,015 
5,050 
5,046 

5,027 

16,493 

17 

Camp  IV 

Camp  III 
Rdokass 

4 
4 

" 

5,027 
4,025 

536 
1,535 

5,563 
5,560 

5,561 

18,245 

18 

CampV 

Camp  III 
Rdokass 

1 
6 

)» 

5,027 
4,025 

419 
1,396 

5,446 
.5,421 

5,433      17,825 

19 

Savoia  Pass 

Rdokass 

1 

J) 

4,025 

2,347 

6,372 

— 

20,906 

20 

Camp  VI 

Rdokass 

10 

»» 

4,025 

1,388 

5,413 

— 

17,760 

21 

Sella  Pass 

Rdokass 

1 

j» 

4,025 

2,097 

6,112 

—       20,053 

22 

Camp  VII 

Rdokass 

8 

)) 

4,025 

1,876 

5,901 

—       19,361 

23 

Camp  VIII        ... 

Rdokass 

1 

»> 

4,025 

2,150 

6,175 

—     '  20,260 

24     Staircase 

Rdokass 

1 

)» 

4,025 

2,531 

6,556 

—       21,510 

25     Camp  IX 

1 

Rdokass 

12 

») 

4,025 

659 

4,684 

— 

15,368 

26     Camp  X 

Rdokass 

1 

Hyps. 

4,025 

715 

4,740 

— 

15,.551 

27 

Camp  XI 

Rdokass 

1 

Fortin 

4,025 

905 

4,930 

— 

16,175 

28 

Camp  XII 

Rdokass 

5 

ji 

4,025 

1,449 

5,474 



17,960 

29 

Camp  XIII        ... 

Rdokass 

1 

)» 

4,025 

1,796 

5,821 

— 

19,098 

30  ;  Camp  XIV 

Rdokass 

3 

11 

4,025 

2,310 

6,335 

— 

20,784 

31 

Camp  XV  (i)    ... 

Rdokass 

1 

)j 

4,025 

2,.^381 

6,606 

— 

21,674 

32 

Camp  XV  (ii)  ... 

Skardu  ... 

1 

>» 

2,287 

4,566 

6,853 

— 

22,484 

33 

Nearest      Bride 
Peak 

Leh 

Srinagar 
Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

)) 

3,506 
1,.586 
2,287 
1,490 

1 

3,932 

5,9.58 
5,209 
6,023 

7,438 
7,544 
7,496 
7,513 

7,498 

24,600 

426  Appendix  B. 

Final  Summixg-up  of  Statistics  of  Height.     (Conw.) 


Stations. 

of  observiit  ioiia. 

1 
1 

Ilei)!ht 
alKjve  sea 

level  of 
stations  of 
reference. 

Differenre 

ill  liei};lit 

Itetween 

stations  of 

ol]«ervation 

and  of 

reference. 

Height  above  sea  level  of 
stations  of  observation. 

No 

Of  olwervation. 

Of  reference. 

.'  +  Z 

metres. 

Metres. 

Feet. 

' 

metres. 

3,.->06 
:i,L'87 
1,490 

Z 

metres. 

13,1.56 

34 

North   Camp  of 
Skoro-La 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

Fortin 

477 
1.721 
2,549 

3,983      4,010 

4,008 

4,0.39 

35 

Skoro-Jja 

Leh        ... 
Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

») 

3,.'306 
2,287 
1,490 

1,555 
2,789 
3,658 

5,061      5,095 

5,076 

.5,148 

16,716 

36 

Camp     Ijetween 
Skardu       and 
Burgi-La 

Leh 

Skardu... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

»» 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

134 
1,131 
1,970 

3,372     3,417 

3,418 
3,460 

11,211 

37 

Burgi-La 

Leh       ... 
Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

» 

3,.506 
2,287 
1,490 

1,300 
2,.546 
3,360 

4,806     4,830 
4,833 

4,8.50 

15,847 

38 

Chundu-Kut     ... 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

)j 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

451 
1,703 
2,523 

3,957     3,987 

3,990 

4,013 

13,081 

39 

Sarsingar 

Leh       ... 
Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

" 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

751 
1,992 
2,813 

4,257      4,280 

4,279 

4,303 

14,042 

40 

Stakpi-Ia 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

ti 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

485 
1,741 
2,639 

3,991      4,049 

4,028 

4,129 

1.3,284 

41 

Burzil     

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

» 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

-      185 
1,080 
1,897 

3,322      3,359 

3,367 

3,.387 

11,021  1 

42 

Pashwari 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

Hyps. 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

-  1,205 

50 

866 

2,301      2,331 

2,337 

2,356 

7,648 

43 

(iurais 

Leh        ... 
Skardu... 
Gilgit    ... 

I 

)> 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

-  1,.537 
276 
554 

1,969     2,008 

2,011 

2,044 

6,588 

44 

GoTh       

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

»» 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

-      861 

423 

1,240 

2,646     2,695 
2,710  1 
2,730 

8,842 

45 

Rajdiangaii 

Leh        ... 
Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

Fortiu 

3,506 
2,287 
1,490 

_         2 
1,2.36 
1,920 

3,504     3,524 

3,523 

3,546 

11,562 

46 

Tragbal 

Leh 

Skardu  ... 
Gilgit    ... 

1 

Hyps. 

3,506 

2,287 
1,490 

-     776 

543 

1,337 

2,730     2,796 

2,830 

2,287 

9,173 

D.  OMODEl. 
Genoa,  January,  1910. 


Appendix  C. 


GEOLOGICAL    RESULTS 

OF    THE 

KARAKORAM     EXPEDITION 

OF 

H.R.H.  The  Dlke  of  the  Abruzzi, 

BY 

INGEGNERE    VITTORIO    NOVARESE, 

Of  the  Italian  Geological  Survey, 
AND 

R.  D.  OLDHAM,  F.R.S..  F.G.S..  &c.. 

Formerly  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India 


GEOLOGICAL    RESULTS    OF    THE    KARAKORAM    EXPEDITION    OF 
H.R.H.    THE    DUKE    OF    THE    ABRUZZI. 

BY 

INGEGNERE    VITTORIO    NOVARESE, 

Of  the   Italian  Geological  Survey,  and 

R.  D.  OLDHAM,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c.. 

Formerly  ol  the  Geological  Survey  of  India. 


The  fundamental  outlines  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the 
Karakoram  range  and  of  Baltistan 
are  still,  in  the  main,  those  drawn 
by  the  labours  of  Col.  H.  H.  Godwin 
Austen  and  of  R.  Lydekker ;  but 
though  the  map  published  by  the 
latter  in  1883,  and  reproduced  on  a 
smaller  scale  in  the  second  edition  of 
the  Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India, 
published  in  1891,  was  coloured  geo- 
logically up  to  the  supposed  watershed 
of  the  Karakoram  range,  exploration 
had  not  in  fact  been  pushed  so  far 
and  the  sources  of  the  Baltoro  were, 
at  that  time,  in  every  way  unknown. 

Later  explorers  had  made  no  note- 
worthy contributions  to  the  geology 
of  the  region  if  we  except  the  record  of  limestones  on  the  Qystal  Peak  and  the 
sedimentary  rocks  of  Golden  Throne  reported  by  Sir  W.  M.  Conway  ;  and  the  good 
fortune — one  may  say  merit — was  reserved  for  the  expedition  led  by  H.R.H.  the 
Duke  of  the  Abruzzi,  of  collecting  observations  which  are  not  only  new  but  to  a 
great  extent  unexpected,  because,  notwithstanding  their  importance  and  obviousness, 
they  had  escaped  the  notice  of  previous  travellers.  Moreover,  they  form  a 
complement  to  those  which  were  almost  simultaneously  being  made  by 
Dr.  LongstafE's  expedition  at  a  distance  of  about  30  miles  to  the  south-east,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Siachen  glacier,  and  hence  come  to  throw  great  light  on  the  nature  and 
constitution  of  that  little-known  portion  of  the  heart  of  the  great  Asiatic  continent. 


430  Appendix  C. 

In  working  out  the  geological  results  of  tlie  Italian  expedition,  the  observations 
and  reports  made  by  its  several  members  have  been  utilised,  as  well  as  the  litho- 
logical  material  collected  by  them.  The  greater  part  of  the  specimens,  indeed 
almost  the  whole,  were  obtained  from  the  glacier  moraines,  for  the  approach  to 
the  rock-walls  of  the  Upper  Baltoro,  though  not  impossible,  is  frequently  dangerous 
on  account  of  the  avalanches  of  snow  and  rocks  precipitated  at  every  moment  from 
these  precipices,  which  measure  not  hundreds  but  thousands  of  feet  in  height. 
The  points  where  the  rocks  are  directly  accessible  are  therefore  somewhat  rare, 
and  consequently  the  specimens  collected  from  rock  in  situ  are  few  in  number. 

Fortunately  the  material  obtained  from  the  moraines  was  not  fortuitously 
collected,  but  the  moraines  running  along  a  transverse  section  at  the  junction  of 
the  Upper  Baltoro  with  the  Godwm  Austen  glaciers  were  consecutively  numbered 
and  the  more  characteristic  material  collected  from  each  of  them.  Since  it  is 
possible  to  determine  the  origin  of  the  material  forming  the  principal  moraines 
in  this  part  of  the  glacier,  a  tolerably  good  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  constitution 
of  the  slopes  from  which  each  is  derived.  Further  on  will  be  found  a  list  of  these 
moraines  and  their  lithological  composition  as  reported  by  Dr.  F.  De  Filippi. 

The  rocks  of  which  specimens  were  procured  belong  to  the  two  categories  of 
crystalline  schists  and  sedimentary  deposits,  with  the  addition  of  certain  specimens 
of  serpentine.  Apart  from  this  last  there  are  no  representatives  of  eruptive  rocks, 
although  granite  is  highly  developed  in  the  mountains  of  the  Baltoro  valley  ; 
evidently  the  abundance  of  limestone  and  other  sedimentary  rocks  attracted  and 
particularly  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Italians. 

A. — Schists    and    Crystalline    Rocks. 

The  specimens  of  crystalline  schists  are  few  in  comparison  with  those  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  but  fortunately  the  more  important  of  them  were  collected  in  situ, 
and  the  place  of  origin  is  consequently  known. 

Along  with  the  crystalline  schists  will  be  described  certain  specimens  of  mineral 
veins,  which  must  traverse  them,  and  the  noble  serpentine,  although  this  should 
be  associated  stratigraphicall}'  with  the  more  recent  rocks,  rather  than  with  the 
crystalline  schists. 

I.  Biotite  gneiss. — ^The  specimen  was  collected  by  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  the 
Abruzzi  on  Bride  Peak,  from  the  last  rock  of  the  eastern  ridge  at  an  altitude  of 
24,600  feet,  on  July  18th,  1909. 

It  is  a  slightly  biotitic  gneiss,  dark  coloured,  of  fine  grain,  but  not  sufficiently 
so  for  it  to  become  cryptocrystalline,  and  showing  banded  structure.  It  is  probably 
flaggy,  though  the  smallness  of  the  fragment  prevents  this  being  affirmed  with 
certainty.  The  grain  is  homogeneous  and  uniform.  The  biotite  does  not  form 
continuous  sheets,  but  appears  in  isolated  flakes.  To  the  naked  eye  small  greenish 
spots  are  noticeable,  due  to  amphibole. 


Geological  Results.  431 

Under  the  microscope  the  rock  is  seen  to  be  composed  of  quartz,  felspar,  biotite 
and  amphibole,  and  as  subordinate  and  accessory  constituents,  sphene,  zircon, 
apatite,  as  well  as  occasional  calcite. 

The  quartz  occurs  in  granular  aggregates,  frequently  drawn  out  in  the  form 
of  lenticles  lying  parallel  to  the  foliation ;  quantitatively  it  is  subordinate  to  the 
felspar,  and  shows  neither  undulate  extension  nor  mechanical  fracture. 

The  felspar  is  of  two  kinds.  Orthoclase  is  the  predominant  form  always 
slightly  opaque  through  incipient  alteration.  Cleavage  is  very  distinct  and  always 
visible.  From  a  study  of  the  disposition  of  the  cleavage  planes  and  their  relative 
frequency  in  sections  cut  parallel  or  transverse  to  the  foliation  it  is  evident  that 
the  individual  crystals  are  arranged  with  the  axis  of  the  two  directions  of  cleavage 
(001)  (010)  parallel  to  the  foliation. 

The  orthoclase  individuals  have  irregular  outlines,  are  always  larger  than  those 
of  quartz,  of  which  they  sometimes  enclose  rounded  granules.  The  maximum 
dimension  of  the  granules  of  orthoclase  attains  0"6  millimetre,  but,  on  the  average, 
is  rather  less  than  half  this  figure.  Small  plates  of  mica  are  commonly  found  in 
the  intervals  between  the  separate  granules. 

The  other  felspar  is  marked  as  albite  by  its  polysynthetic  twining  and  the 
index  of  refraction  being  less  than  that  of  quartz.  It  is  very  rare  in  comparison 
with  the  orthoclase. 

The  biotite  occurs  without  any  crystal  faces,  except  the  basal  plane ;  the  flakes 
have  a  very  irregular  outline  as  seen  in  a  thin  section,  much  elongated  in  the 
direction  of  the  basal  plane.  The  maximum  dimensions  are  0*55  millimetre  in  the 
direction  of  c  and  0'70  millimetre  in  the  direction  perpendicular  to  this,  that  is 
to  say,  parallel  to  the  basal  plane. 

The  biotite  occurs  in  two  sizes.  The  larger  lie  along  the  foliation  planes  and 
are  arranged  in  similar  orientation.  The  smaller,  which  have  already  been  noticed 
when  speaking  of  the  felspar,  occur  in  extremely  minute  flakes  and  lying  in  any 
direction  in  the  interstices  of  the  aggregate  of  quartz  and  felspar  forming  the  ground 
mass  of  the  rock. 

The  biotite  is  brown  and  exhibits  the  following  pleochroism  : — 

n^i  =  a  =  palt;  yellow 
»,„  —  b  =  brown 
n^  =  C  =  brown. 

There  is  very  little  difference  between  n,„  and  n,„  the  absorption  parallel  to  the 
basal  plane  is  not  great,  as  the  mineral  has  preserved  its  transparency  and  pale 
brown  colour  ;  it  is  sensibly  uniaxial  in  convergent  light. 

The  mica  in  general  is  quite  fresh  and  shows  no  sign  of  chemical  alteration  or 
mechanical  deformation. 

The  amphibole  has  the  habit  of  actinolite,  always  in  rather  slender  prisms,  for 
the  most  part  grouped  in  bundles  with  their  axes  parallel  to  the  foliation.     It  is 


432  Appendix  C. 

constantly  associated  with  mica,  but,  notwithstanding  this  connection,  does  not 
seem  to  be  derived  from  the  latter,  which,  as  has  been  mentioned,  is  always  quite 
fresh. 

The  angle  o£  maximum  extinction  is  almost  exactly  15°,  but  not  greater.  The 
pleochroism  is  as  follows  :^ 

n„  =  c  =  blue  green  with  notable  absorption 

n,„  =  h  =  bright  gi'een  with  a  slight  tendency  to  brown 

•Hi,  =  a  =  very  pale  green 

a    <  b  <  c. 

The  maximum  length  of  the  groups  of  prisms  is  1  millimetre,  the  mean  width 
of  each  prism  0'05  to  0'06  millimetre. 

Among  the  accessory  minerals  sphene  is  abundant  and  in  comparatively  large 
grains.     The  calcite  is  certainly  of  secondary  origin. 

The  structure  of  the  rock  is  interesting,  particularly  as  seen  in  sections  perpen- 
dicular to  the  foliation,  on  account  of  the  regular  distribution  of  the  coloured 
constituents,  especially  the  mica,  which  is  much  more  abundant  than  the  amphibole, 
and  of  a  certain  uniformity  of  dimension  of  the  grains  of  quartz  and  felspar :  this 
is  a  type  of  hornstone  structure,  characteristic  of  rocks  metamorphosed  by  contact 
with  granite.  In  the  sections  examined  no  mineral  characteristic  of  contact 
metamorphism,  as,  for  instance,  andalusite,  was  seen  but  the  structure  and 
character,  especially  of  the  biotite,  convey  the  impression  of  a  rock  of  this  character. 
Should  future  observation  confirm  this  it  will  have  to  be  admitted  that  the  granite 
of  the  Baltoro  neighbourhood  is  more  recent  than  the  crystalline  schists  which 
are  in  contact  with,  and  have  been  metamorphosed  by,  it. 

II.  Noble  Serpentine. — Typical  specimens  of  this  were  collected  along  the 
whole  course  of  the  Baltoro.  They  were  also  found  in  the  moraines  of  the  upper 
reaches  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  intrusive  in  the  sedimentary  rocks.  Lydekker 
records  this  mineral  as  occurring  in  the  Shigar  region  in  the  supra-Kuling  series, 
of  mesozoic,  perhaps  upper  mesozoic  age ;  it  was  also  determined  by  Prof.  T.  G. 
Bonney  and  Miss  A.  C.  Raisin^  in  specimens  collected  by  Sir  M.  Conway  from 
White  Fan  Pass,  a  little  east  of  Crystal  Peak. 

III.  Vein  Quartz. — In  variety.  Two  specimens  were  collected  by  His  Royal 
Highness  on  Bride  Peak,  along  with  the  biotite  gneiss  already  described,  others 
in  the  moraines  of  the  Baltoro.  The  latter  enclose  pyrites  and  ai-senical  p3Tites 
or  mispickel ;  these  very  common  minerals  would  be  of  no  importance  but  that 
they  may  indicate  a  possible  origin  of  the  gold  which  near  Skardu  and  elsewhere 
is  found  in  small  quantities  in  the  alluvium  of  the  Upper  Indus  and  its  tributaries, 
possibly  in  doubly  derivative  occurrence,  as  Lydekker  found  traces  of  gold 
workings  in  the  alluvial  terraces  at  about  120  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the 
Indus.  Probably  the  pyrites  of  the  quartz  veins  is  sufficiently  auriferous  to  give 
rise  on  its  decomposition  to  the  scanty  gold  which  is  met  with  in  these  river  gravels. 

'  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  LV,  p.  486  (1894). 


Geological  Results.  433 


B. — Sedimentary  Rocks. 


The  rocks  of  palpably  sedimentary  origin,  collected  in  the  Baltoro  moraines, 
fall  into  two  principal  groups :  one  composed  of  schists  and  siliceous  anagenites/ 
the  other  of  most  various  limestones,  dolomites  and  calcareous  breccias. 

The  first  group  contains  many  types,  which,  individually,  seem  tolerably 
different  from  each  other,  but,  considered  as  a  whole,  yield  so  many  intermediate 
types  as  to  suggest  an  origin  from  one  and  the  same  series  of  strata.  The 
prototype  is  a  rock  composed  of  small  rounded  fragments  of  quartz  imbedded  in 
a  micaceous  matrix,  and  may  be  described  as  a  reddish  violet  anagenite  with  the 
quartzose  component  generally  of  small  dimensions,  and  of  white,  reddish  and 
greenish  colour,  imbedded  in  a  distinctly  schistose  micaceous  (sericitic)  matrix. 
With  the  disappearance  of  the  quartz  fragments  this  rock  passes  into  a  thoroughly 
typical  \'iolet-coloured  sericite  schist.  At  times  the  quartz  grains  increase  in 
size  and  abundance  till  the  rock,  being  strongly  cleaved,  assumes  a  characteristically 
gneissose  appearance;  at  others  the  sericitic  cement  becomes  so  cryptocrystalline 
as  to  assume  a  wax-like  appearance.  Occasionally  the  whole  rock  seems  to  have 
undergone  an  alteration  which  has  given  it  an  argillaceous  appearance,  recalling 
that  of  some  porphyrites  or  porphyritic  tuffs,  which  have  been  altered  into  argillites. 

Less  abundant  as  compared  with  these  rocks,  all  more  or  less  reddish  in  colour, 
are  others,  quite  analogous,  of  greenish  grey  colour,  which  probably  alternate  with 
the  former  because,  except  for  the  colour  of  the  micaceous  matrix,  they  consist  of 
the  same  elements. - 

The  calcareous  group  presents  an  extraordinary  wealth  of  varieties  and  can  be 
divided  into  three  sub-groups :  limestones,  comprising  also  dolomites  and  dolomitic 
limestones,  coloured  marbles,  and  breccias,  the  latter  more  abundant  than  all  the 
other  rocks. 

The  first  sub-group  includes  white,  grey  and  black-banded  limestones,  and 
whitish  and  yellowish  dolomites.  One  crystalline  limestone  in  particular  deserves 
special  mention ;  it  is  a  fine-grained,  almost  waxy  looking  limestone,  sometimes 
marbled  with  fine  grey  lines,  sometimes  having  the  appearance  of  cipolin,  which 
is  probably  derived  from  lenticular  masses  included  in  the  gneiss  or  mica  schist. 

'  This  word,  which  is  not  used  in  England  or  mentioned  in  English  text  books,  is  in  common 
use  by  French  and  Italian  geologists  for  a  rock  composed  of  small  roundid  fragments,  or  jx'bbles, 
of  quartz  scattered  tlvrough  a  fine  grained  micaceous  matrix.  Rocks  of  this  kind  are  common 
inthe  Alps,  as  also  in  parts  of  the  Himalaj-a-s,  and  since  there  is  no  word  in  comraon  Enghsh use 
to  describe  them  the  term  has  been  retained. — R.  D.  O. 

'  The  rocks  described  by  Prof.  F.  G.  Bonney  and  Miss  Raisin  from  the  collection  made  by 
Sir  M.  Conway  under  the  names  of  grit,  schistose  grit,  and  to  some  extent  quartzite,  include 
many  which  would  here  be  described  as  tj-pical  anagenites. 

(9221)  2  B 


434  Aj)i)cndix  C. 

In  the  group  of  coloured  marbles  the  prevailing  variety  is  a  very  beautiful  red 
marble  with  small  white  spots,  and  various  other  types,  all  having  a  red  coloured 
base  and  white  veins. 

There  comes  finally  the  group  of  breccias,  which  presents  no  small  variation, 
both  in  the  nature  of  the  fragments  and  in  that  of  the  cement,  in  the  colour  of  one 
or  the  other,  and  so  on.  Noteworthy  is  a  whole  series  of  breccias  of  calcareous 
fragments,  bound  together  by  a  reddish  micaceous  substance,  quite  analogous  with 
the  matrix  of  the  anagenites.  Better  than  any  description  as  a  help  to  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  range  of  colours  of  these  breccias,  is  the  fact  that  they  present  many 
analogies  with  the  varieties  of  marble  from  the  Apuan  jUps  and  other  parts  of  Italy. 

Certain  specimens,  intermediate  between  the  breccias  and  marbles,  arc  formed 
of  a  soft,  dark  red,  calcareous  schist,  seamed  with  veins  of  calcite,  which  gives 
place,  when  associated  with  white  limestone,  to  a  white  marble  with  violet-coloured 
amygdaloidal  patches,  and  dark  red  veining,  and  to  a  dark  red  and  white  marble 
breccia  with  green  variegation,  altogether  similar  to  the  rosso  di  Levanfo ;  but  while 
the  latter  is  a  typical  ophicalcite,  as  much  cannot  be  said  of  the  Baltoro  specimens, 
in  which  the  green  is  due  to  variegation  of  the  schistose  portion.  It  is,  however,  to 
be  noted  that  we  are  not  impossibly  dealing  with  an  extreme  form  of  true 
ophicalcite,  as  fragments  of  noble  serpentine  are  found  in  the  moraine  along  with 
this  breccia. 

The  specimens  collected  at  the  camping  grounds  of  the  explorers  are  insufficient 
for  an  attempt  to  arrange  the  various  types  in  their  order  of  geological  sequence. 
The  onl}^  hypothesis  which  can  be  hazarded  is  that  probably  some  of  the  calcareous 
breccias  with  micaceous  cement  come  from  the  contact  zone  of  the  schists  and 
anagenites  with  the  limestone  and  dolomite.  In  the  Apuan  Alps  very  similar 
breccias  [mischio  di  Saravezza)  occur  at  the  contact  between  the  lower  limestones 
(grezzoni)  and  the  underlying  schists,  which  have  been  ascribed  to  the  permian, 
others,  on  the  contrary,  occur  at  the  contact  of  the  said  grezzoni  with  the  zone  of 
marbles,  etc.  All  these  breccias  appear  to  be  due  to  mechanical  action  and  are 
consequently  referable  to  crush  breccias. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  organic  remains  among  the  material  collected  by  the 
Italian  expedition,  no  direct  determination  of  the  geological  age  of  the  formations 
is  possible,  and  the  only  way  to  arrive  at  even  a  very  approximate  determination 
is  by  comparison  of  the  specimens  collected  with  the  rocks  already  studied  and 
known  in  other  parts  of  the  district.  According  to  the  work  of  Lydekker  and 
Godwin-Austen,  confirmed  by  later  observ'^ation,  a  great  complex  of  formations 
occurs  in  a  syncline,  between  Shigar  and  Askoley,  in  Baltistan,  and  in  the  range 
rising  west  of  the  Biafo  glacier.  This  complex,  formed  by  alternations  of  schist, 
limestone,  dolomite  containing  serpentine,  and,  according  to  Col.  Godwin-Austen, 
also  quartzites,  may  well  be  the  equivalent  of  the  formations  met  with  in  the  Upper 
Baltoro  valley.     Mr.  Lydekker  gives  two  sections  across  this  formation  and  mentions 


Gcoloiiical   I'csults.  435 


'!^ 


dolomitic  limestones,  blue  and  white  mottled  limestones,  pure  white  and  blue 
limestones  with  red  veins,  green  and  black  schists,  the  latter  carbonaceous  and 
calcareous,  and  so  forth,  besides  brown  grits,  which  may  be  the  reddish  anagenites 
and  identical  with  the  quartzites  of  Colonel  Godwin- Austen.  In  short  the  rocks  are 
all  such  as  are  present  in  the  moraines  of  the  Upper  Baltoro  glacier.  Mr.  Lydekker 
also  mentions  dolomites  and  limestones  with  characteristic  red  stains,  identical 
with  those  found  in  the  supra-Kuling  series  of  Chang-cheng-mo.'  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, too  risky  to  assume  that  the  same  formations,  but  with  a  much  greater 
development  of  limestones  in  comparison  with  the  other  rocks,  are  repeated  to 
the  east  of  K '  and  form  the  Broad-Gasherbrum-Golden  Throne  group  of  mountains. 
The  beds  of  the  series  forming  the  above-mentioned,  so-called^  Baltistan- 
Braldoh  sj'ncline  are  ascribed  by  Mr.  Lydekker,  on  account  of  their  resemblance 
to  other  fossiliferous  rocks  of  the  district,  to  his  Zanskar  system,  named  after  a 
district  in  Kashmir,  and  attributed  to  a  carbon-mesozoic  age.  The  series  which 
is  fossiliferous  at  Shigar,  and  comparable  with  that  met  with  on  the  Sasser 
Karakoram  track,  certainly  includes  the  permian  and  trias,  together  with  older 
beds  at  the  base  and  newer  ones  above.  With  all  reservation  necessary  in  the 
present  case,  we  may,  provisionally,  accept  a  similar  coiTcIation  for  the  sedimentary 
series  of  the  Upper  Baltoro,  all  the  more  so  as  I  shall  shortly  set  forth  other 
arguments  in  favour  of  this  hypothesis. 

A  sufficiently  clear  idea  of  the  topographical  distribution  of  these  sedimentary 
rocks  in  the  mountains  of  the  Upper  Baltoro  may  be  formed  from  the  series  of 
moraine  ridges  immediately  below  the  confluence  of  the  Baltoro  with  the  Godwin- 
Austen  glacier,  along  a  line  drawn  from  north  to  south.' 

According  to  Dr.  De  Filippi  the  succession  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  A  large  moraine  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  crystalline  rocks,  derived  from  the 

range  on  the  left  of  the  glacier  from  Bride  Peak  to  Masherbrum. 

2.  Moraine  of  limestone  fragments,  rich  in  coloured  marbles  and  limestone 

breccias,  which  have  fallen  from  the  western  flanks  of  Golden  Throne. 

3.  Narrow  moraine  of  schistose  slaty  rocks,  which  unites  with  the  preceding 

one  a  little  lower  down. 

4.  A  great  moraine  of  calcareous  fragments,  coloured  marbles,  breccias  and 

anagenites  of  various  colours,  with  a  predominance  of  wine  red,  which 
descends  from  Hidden  Peak  and  the  southern  buttresses  of  Gasherbrum. 

With  this  moraine  the  contribution  of  the  Upper  Baltoro  ceases  and 
gives  way  to  that  of  the  Godwin- Austen  glacier. 

1  Mem.  Geol  Snrv.  Ind.  XXII,  pp.  188,  189. 

2  E.  SuESS,  Das  Antlitz  tier  Erde,  III,  pt.  i,  p.  350. 

'  These  moraine  ridges  are  very  clearly  visible  in  the  Panorama  M,  taken  from  the  rock  crest 
between  the  Vigne  and  Baltoro  glaciers. 

(&221)  2  E  2 


43G  Appendix  (■. 

5.  Moraine  of  limestone  fragments  collected  along  the  slopes  of  Broad  Peak. 

6.  Median  moraine,  coming  from  the  southern  and  western  slopes  of  K",  the 

prevailing  constituents  being  granite  and  crystalline  schists  with  some 
scattered  fragmei\ts  of  limestone. 

7.  Right  hand  marginal  moraine,  with  the  same  composition  as  the  preceding, 

but  becoming  richer  in  limestone  fragments  below  the  white  limestone 
peak,  which  rises  to  the  south-east  of  Crystal  Peak,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Baltoro  and  Godwin-Austen  glaciers. 


The  observations  made  by  Dr.  De  Filippi,  the  beautiful  photographs  of  Vittorio 
Sella,  and  the  material  determined  and  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages,  make  it 
possible  to  draw  the  outlines  of  a  sketch  of  the  geological  constitution  of  the 
mountains  of  the  Upper  Baltoro  and  to  study  their  relations  to  other  districts 
geologically  known. 

From  the  end  of  the  glacier  near  Paiju  up  to  the  confluence  of  the  Godwin-Austen 
glacier,  the  Baltoro  valley  is  opened  through  the  gneisses  and  granites  of  the 
Baltistan  mas.sif,  according  to  the  unanimous  description  of  all  explorers.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  crystalline  limestone  might  be  intercalated  in  this  series 
of  crystalUne  schists,  for  Lydekker  mentions^  having  met  with  it  in  the  Hushe 
valley,  which  descends  southwards  from  Masherbrum  in  the  heart  of  the  gneissic 
area. 

Certain  of  Sella's  photographs,  however,  led  me  to  entertain  some  doubt  of  the 
entirely  gneissic  character  of  the  Lower  Baltoro  valley.  In  the  preliminary  account 
of  the  journey,  published  by  the  Italian  Geographical  Society,*  it  is  mentioned  that 
the  mountains  on  the  right  of  the  Baltoro  in  front  of  Rdokass  are  gigantic,  with 
vertical  flanks,  and  peaks  of  superb  and  fantastic  forms,  sometimes  of  formidable 
towers,  at  others  of  sharply  pointed  pyramids.  As  the  photographs  and  telephoto- 
graphs  show,  these  irregular  forms  are  confined  to  the  upper  parts  of  the 
mountains  and  seem  to  be  the  remnants  of  an  enormous,  nearly  horizontal  layer 
superimposed  on  the  massive  gneiss.  The  forms,  in  short,  of  these  mountains 
reproduce  the  appearance  of  the  dolomitic  towers  of  the  Alps,  so  that  it  is  at  least 
justifiable  to  doubt  whether  there  may  not  be,  in  this  part  of  the  Mustagh,  the 
remains  of  a  capping  of  sedimentary  rock  regularly  covering  the  gneiss  and  forming 
what  is  known  in  modern  terminology  as  a  "  lambeau  de  recouvrement,"  composed 
of  dolomites,  overthrust  on  to  the  gneiss  and  granites  of  Baltistan. 

Apart  from  dolomite,  the  only  rock,  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  capable  of 
assuming  such  forms  is  the  protogene,  a  special  form  of  granite,  of  Mont  Blanc. 

'  Loc.  cit.,  p.  312. 

•  Boll  Soc.  Geog.  Ital.  series  iv,  XI,  p.  444,  April  1910. 


Geological  llcsults.  437 

Since  four  glaciers  descend  from  the  clifls  in  question  it  will  be  easy  for  a  later 
examination  to  confirm  or  refute  this  hypothesis  by  an  examination  of  the 
moraines. ' 

Ascending  the  valley,  the  mountains  suggest  no  change  of  character  till  the 
confluence  of  the  Godwin-Austen  glacier  is  approached.  On  the  right  of  the 
Baltoro,  opposite  and  north  of  Mitre  Peak,  a  marble  crag  rises  from  one  of  the 
buttresses  of  Crystal  Mountain,  and  is  marked  in  the  map  of  the  Italian 
expedition  by  the  figure  20088.  The  peak  is  most  recognisable  because  the  .summit, 
composed  of  pure  white  marble,  rises  from  a  base  of  dark-coloured  schists.  The 
dip  of  the  schists,  though  steep,  is  distinctly  eastwards  above,  but  lower  down 
becomes  perfectly  vertical,  where  the  beds  are  seen  plunging  perpendicularly  into 
the  Godwin- Austen  glacier. 

As  it  was  not  possible  to  secure  authentic  specimens,  either  of  the  schists  of  the 
base  or  of  the  marble,  we  must  have  recourse  to  conjecture.  In  the  material  of 
the  moraine  the  only  white  marble  is  a  saccharoid  limestone  of  very  fine  grain, 
with  suggestions  of  cipolin,  derived  from  the  moraine  on  the  Baltoro  in  direct 
coiTespondence  with  this  peak.  Is  this  mass  of  marble  simplv  a  great  lenticular 
inclusion  of  crystalline  limestone  in  the  Baltistan  gneiss,  like  that  of  Masherbrum, 
or,  does  it  belong  to  the  overlying  group  forming  the  massif  opposite  to  it,  from 
which  it  seems  separated  by  some  local  accident  of  structure  or  sculpture  ?  The 
material  for  answering  these  questions  is  not  to  hand. 

West  of  the  marble  peak  lies  a  saddle  named  by  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  AMiite 
Fan  pass,  beyond  which  rises  his  Crystal  Peak,  not  that  so  named  on  the  Italian 
map,  but  one  of  its  minor  peaks.  Among  the  specimens  collected  by  Sir  W.  M. 
Conway,  on  the  ascent  of  his  Crystal  Peak,  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney  and  Miss  A.  C.  Raisin 
identified^  a  fine-grained  gneiss,  a  calcitic  quartz  schist,  a  dark-coloured  mica  schist, 
a  dolomite,  and  a  limestone,  both  crystalline.  From  the  ^\Tiite  Fan  pass  came  a 
mica  syenite  and  a  fine-grained  crystalline  dolomite.  All  these  are  rocks  of  a 
crystalline  series  and,  except  the  syenite,  of  the  schistose  group.  The  presence 
of  unaltered  sedimentary  rocks  in  the  Baltoro  moraines,  opposite  Cr\'stal  Peak, 
led  Prof.  Bonney  and  Miss  Raisin  to  propose  the  hypothesis  that  sedimentary  forma- 
tions were  represented  in  the  rock  forming  this  mountain.  Now  that  we  know  that 
sedimentary  rocks  form  the  whole  of  Gasherbrum,  from  which  the  greatest  part  of 
the  moraine  material  of  the  Baltoro  is  derived.  Prof.  Bonney *s  conjecture  becomes 
baseless,  and  the  presence  of  sedimentary  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of  Crystal  Peak 
problematical.^ 

'  It  is  wortli  noting  that  the  illustrations  to  Sir  \\'.  il.  Conway's  book,  and  to  that  of 
Dr.  Jacot  Guillarmod,  indicate  the  existence  of  a  very  .similar  feature  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Masherbrum  range,  to  the  south  of  the  Baltoro  valley. — R.  D.  O. 

'  Scientific  ResulUs,  p.  72. 

'  See,  howev^er,  the  remarks  on  p.  445. 

(9221)  o  E  3 


438  Appendix  C. 

The  formation  of  .schists,  anagcnitcs,  limestones  and  dolomites  shows  up  in 
its  full  development  in  the  terminal  mass,  lying  between  the  Godwin- Austen  and 
Upper  Baltoro  glaciers,  which  is  crowned  by  the  tliree  peaks  Broad,  Gasherbrum 
and  Hidden,  rising  to  heights  o£  more  than  26,500  feet  (8,000  metres).  The 
limestones  predominate  in  the  high  portion  of  the  Broad  and  Gasherbrum 
mountains,  the  base  of  schists  is  seen  to  fringe  the  foot  of  these  mountains 
along  the  whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Godwin- Austen  and  eastwards  along 
the  right  bank  of  the  Upper  Baltoro  glaciers,  to  almost  opposite  Mitre  Peak. 
Beyond  this  point  the  limestones  extend  down  to  the  base,  and  on  the  left  of 
the  photographic  view  of  Bride  Peak  from  Camp  III  the  mass  of  limestones, 
bristling  with  peaks  and  pinnacles,  is  seen  to  rise  from  the  glacier. 

The  boundary  between  the  limestones  and  schists  is,  consequently,  covered  by 
ice  in  the  valley,  but  certainly  rises  towards  the  dip  between  the  calcareous  Golden 
Throne  and  the  gneissic  Bride,  and  probably  crosses  Chogolisa  pass. 

Among  the  specimens  collected  by  Sir  W.  M.  Conway  on  the  second  pinnacle  of 
Pioneer  Peak,  one  of  the  peaks  of  Golden  Throne,  is  a  purple  schistose  grit  with 
small  pebbles,  mentioned  by  Prof.  Boniiey  and  Miss  Raisin',  which  may  be  identical 
with  the  anagenite  of  this  report. 

As  appears  from  specimens  collected  by  His  Royal  Highness,  at  a  height  of 
24,600  feet.  Bride  Peak  is  composed  above  of  gneiss,  and  at  the  ba.se  of  the  granites 
and  granitoid  gneisses,  so  extremely  abundant,  according  to  the  observations  of 
the  members  of  the  Italian  expedition,  in  the  moraines  of  the  glacier  which  descends 
from  this  mountain. 

In  the  Upper  Godwin- Austen  glacier  the  boundary  between  the  gneiss  and  the 
beds  of  the  pateo-mesozoic  series  must  lie  to  the  south  of  Windy  Gap,  as  the 
Staircase  is  made  of  coarse-grained,  light  greyish  gneiss. 

The  base  of  the  highest  peak  of  the  neighbourhood,  K-,  ought,  according  to 
the  reports  of  various  expeditions,  to  be  formed  of  light-coloured  granites  or  grani- 
toid gneisses.  But  the  several  photographs  taken  from  south,  east  and  west  show 
a  well  marked  stratification  with  gentle  dips  of  about  15°  to  20°,  which  is  greatest 
in  the  terminal  pyramid  ;  it  is  probably  due  to  layers  of  gneiss  analogous  to  those 
of  Bride  Peak.  Colonel  Godwin  Austen,  who  noticed  tliis  peculiarity  in  the  photo- 
graphs brought  back  by  the  Italian  expedition,  expressed  the  ojiinion-  that  the 
stratified  summit  of  K"  might  be  more  recent  than  the  granite  base.  I  cannot 
accept  this  opinion  of  the  illustrious  and  learned  explorer  without  reservation. 
The  mere  fact  of  superposition  is  not  enough  to  establish  the  relative  age  of  two 
formations  in  a  highly  disturbed  region,  all  the  more  so  as  the  granite  may  be 
intrusive. 


'  Scientific  Results,  \y.  V.'i. 
^  Oeog.  Jour,  xxxvii,  p.  2(1. 


Geological  Results.  43!) 

The  scarcity  of  specimens  obtained  from  rock  in  situ  leaves  many  questions 
obscure.  Are  the  schists  of  the  base  of  Broad  Peak  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Marble  Peak  ?  Do  they  belong  to  the  crystalline  schists  as  Dr.  De  Filippi  believes, 
or  to  the  palaeo-mesozoic  series  ?     At  present  no  answer  is  possible. 

One  other  question  remains  unsettled,  the  direction  of  the  dip  of  the 
contact  between  the  schists  and  limestones  at  the  base  of  Broad  Peak.  The 
course  of  the  junction  from  Windy  Gap  to  the  Chogolisa  pass,  taking  into  account 
the  difference  of  level,  is  nearly  north  and  south,  but  none  of  the  photographs  have 
enabled  the  dip  to  be  determined.  Taking  into  account  what  is  seen  on  the  Marble 
Peak  it  is  probable  that  the  dip  is  very  high  and  nearly  vertical,  with  a  tendency 
towards  inversion  to  an  apparent  easterly  dip.'  From  Mr.  Lydekker's  observations 
we  know  that  at  Askoley,  in  the  Braldnh  valley,  the  contact  between  the  sedimentary 
series  and  the  gneiss  of  Baltistan  hades  to  the  east,  that  is  to  say,  the  gneiss  is 
inverted  over  the  more  recent  rocks.  If  this  explanation  is  rejected  we  must 
believe  that  there  is  a  superposition  in  normal  chronological  order. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  gaps,  which  yet  remain  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
geology  of  the  mountains  of  the  Baltoro  glacier,  one  fact  of  greatest  importance 
has  been  established.  The  valley  of  the  great  glacier  is  clcsed  on  the  north  by  a 
very  elevated  massif,  composed  of  sedimentary  rocks  of  upper  palseozoic  and 
mesozoic  age,  prevailingly  calcareous  and,  therefore,  differing  widely  from  the 
mountains  of  the  rest  of  the  valley,  which  are  entirely,  or  prevailingly,  granitic  and 
gneissic. 

This  difference  explains  how  the  course  of  the  junction  between  these  types  of 
rock  has  determined  that  of  the  longitudinal  furrow,  formed  by  two  subsequent 
valleys,  which  give  origin  to  the  bifurcation  of  the  valley  into  the  two  branches 
of  the  Upper  Baltoro  and  the  God  win- Austen,  descending,  respectively,  from  the 
Chogolisa  pass  and  Windy  Gap.  The  valley  of  the  Baltoro  has,  therefore,  a 
certain  analogy  with  that  of  the  Upper  Aosta,  which  ends  in  the  two  longitudinal 
valleys  of  the  Allee  Blanche  and  Ferret,  meeting  at  Entreves,  at  the  foot  of  Mont 
Blanc,  to  form  the  strictly  transverse  valley  of  the  Dora  di  Valdigne.  Geologicallj' 
and  lithologically  the  Baltoro  valley  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  opposite  of  the 
Aosta,  because,  while  the  latter  is  formed  of  schistose  limestone  rocks  and  shut 
in  by  a  granite  mass,  the  former  is  cut  through  granitic  and  gneissic  mountains 

'  The  view  of  Bride  Peak  in  the  photographs,  and  the  course  of  the  boundary  from  the  Chogolisa 
Pass  along  the  whole  of  the  lower  part  of  the  CJodwin  Austen  glacier,  seem  to  indicate  a  well- 
marked  easterly  or,  more  precisely,  north-easterly  dip.  If  this  dip  remained  unaltered  the 
boundary  should  rise  along  the  base  of  K  '  to  tlie  Savoia  pass.  Tliat  tlie  hoiuidary  is  found 
at  Windy  Gap,  much  further  east,  indicates  a  stratigrapliical  disturbance,  either  fracture  or 
secondary  fold,  causing  either  bodily  displacement  or  a  local  change  of  dip,  and  determining 
the  abrupt  bi'ud  to  the  north-eastwards  of  the  course  of  tJic  upper  Oodwin-Austen  glacier. 
(9221)  2  E  4 


440  A])])endix  C. 

and  closed  by  a  mass  of  schists  and  limestones,  which  ought  to  be  named  after 
the  Broad  Peak,  as  this  rising  to  27,133  feet  forms  the  highest  point,  rather  than 
the  customary  Gasherbrum,  which  will  be  retained  as  it  has  become  established 
by  use. 

From  the  distribution  of  morenic  material  in  the  glaciers  of  the  group  it  seems 
fairly  probable  that  the  terminal  peaks  of  Broad,  Gasherbrum  IV,  Hidden  and 
Golden  Throne  are  all  formed  of  limestone  and  dolomite.  They  will  consequently 
be  the  first  peaks  of  over  or  near  26,500  feet  known  to  be  formed  of  sedimentary 
rocks,  whereas  the  loftiest  summits  previously  known  are  composed  of  granitic, 
gneissic  rocks,  or  else  formed  by  volcanic  cones.  Allowing  for  difference  of  scale, 
the  Broad  group  may  be  taken  to  represent,  in  the  Karakoram,  the  Grand  Combin, 
in  the  Alps — the  only  peak  formed  of  sedimentary  rocks  (mesozoic  calcareous  schists 
of  Piedmontese  facies)  which  rises  above  13,000  feet. 

If  we  regard  the  general  geological  structure  of  the  region,  as  shown  by 
geological  maps  and  descriptions,  the  discovery  of  the  great  mass  of  limestones  of 
the  Upper  Baltoro  appears  clearly  as  the  continuation,  and  harmonic  complement, 
of  the  structural  outlines  which  had  been  suggested,  but  left  uncertain,  by  earlier 
exploration  to  the  south-east.  For  a  long  time  the  presence  of  palseo-me.sozoic  rocks 
iu  the  Chang-cheng-mo-Karakoram  region  of  Eastern  Ladakh  has  been  known; 
they  have  been  described  by  Dr.  Stoliczka  iu  1878,  and  at  a  later  date  by  Mr. 
Lydekker,  who  found  dolomites  with  upper  trias  fossils.  This  palseo-mesozoic 
area  forms  an  elongated  strip  running  north-westwards  parallel  to  the  direction 
of  the  gneissic  mass  of  Baltistan.  It  had  been  traced  to  Sirsil,  between  the  Nubra 
and  Shyok  valleys,  on  the  road  to  the  Karakoram  pass,  but  its  ultimate  course 
and  end  remained  unknown.  The  calcareous  dolomitic  mass  of  Gasherbrum  lies 
appro.ximately  on  the  north-west  prolongation  of  this  band,  and  the  discovery, 
by  Dr.  Longstaff,  of  limestone  in  the  median  moraine  of  the  upper  Siachen  glacier, 
at  a  place  intermediate  between  Sirsil  and  the  Upper  Baltoro,  is  a  weighty  argument 
in  favour  of  the  continuity  of  this  band  of  mesozoic  limestone  for  some  90  miles, 
through  a  region  which  is  yet  unexplored,  even  geographically. 

The  importance  of  this  discovery  is  not  merely  geological  but  also,  and 
principally,  geogi-aphical.  The  course  of  the  watershed,  between  the  Indus  valley 
and  the  closed  drainage  area  of  Turkestan,  from  the  Mustagh  to  the  Karakoram 
pass,  was  uncertain  and  badly  known,  in  spite  of  certain  peaks  having  been  trigono- 
metrically  fixed,  as  it  had  been  barely  seen  and  never  crossed  by  the  explorers 
who  followed  each  other  at  long  intervals. 

The  Italian  expedition  obtained,  from  Windy  Gap,  on  15th  June,  1909,  the 
first  view  over  the  unknown  country  east  of  the  mountains  bounding  the  Baltoro 
glacier,  and  saw,  to  the  left  of  Gasherbrum,  not  the  valley  of  the  Oprang  tributary 
of  the  Yarkand,  seen  a  few  days  previously  by  His  Royal  Highness  from  the  Savoia 


Geolo<iical  Results.  441 


'!^ 


pass  to  the  west  of  K'-,  but  another  valley,  with  a  glacier  draining  to  the  south- 
east. 

Almost  simultaneously,  on  16th  June,  1909,  Dr.  LongstafE  crossed  the  presumed 
watershed  by  the  Saltoro  pass  and  descended  onto  a  glacier  which,  a  couple  of 
months  later,  was  suspected  on  the  suggestion  of  Colonel  Burrard  to  be 
the  upper  portion  of  the  Saichar  or  Siachen  glacier,  previously  known  only 
at  its  lower  end,  and  believed  to  have  a  length  of  about  20  miles,  instead  of 
the  45  miles  it  is  now  known  to  reach.  The  source  of  the  Siachen  is  thus 
pushed  back  to  an  untraversed  pass,  seen  by  Dr.  LongstafE  from  an  estimated 
distance  of  12  miles,  and  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  that  reported,  from  the 
northern  side,  at  the  head  of  the  Urdok  glacier  by  Sir  F.  Younghusband,  in  his 
exploration  of  the  Oprang  valley  in  1889 ;  a  pass  which  seems  to  lie  in  about  the 
same  latitude  as  Golden  Throne.  In  the  mountains  to  the  east  of  this  pass, 
to  which  Dr.  LongstafE  gave  the  name  of  Younghusband,  he  noted  the  very  lofty 
peak  of  Teram  Kangri,  whose  height,  estimated  approximately  at  27,010  feet, 
makes  it  one  of  the  loftiest  mountains  of  the  world.  ^ 

Finally  he  noticed  that  the  moraines  on  the  left  of  this  upper  Siachen  glacier, 
like  those  on  the  right  of  the  upper  Baltoro,  were  full  of  marbles  and  calcareous 
breccias,  and  saw,  some  ten  miles  off,  the  rocks  of  Teram  Kangri  gleam  white,  where 
not  covered  with  snow;  facts  which  led  him  unhesitatingly  to  the  conclasion  that 
this  superb  mountain  was  formed  of  limestone.  This  statement,  which  might  appear 
rash,  if  unsupported,  attains  a  certain  probability  from  the  observations  and 
records  of  the  Italian  expedition  in  the  Gasherbrum  massif.-  The  mountain  mass 
of  Teram  Kangri  lies  about  south-east  of  Broad  Peak,  and  on  the  line  joining  this 
with  the  limestone  band  recorded  between  the  Nubra  and  Upper  Shyok  valleys  and 
from  its  eastern  declivities  by  Mr.  Lydekker,  to  the  south  of  the  Sirsil  or  Sasser  pass. 

This  unexpected  extension  of  the  Siachen  glacier  to  the  vicinity  of  the  mountains 
at  the  head  of  the  Baltoro  gives  great  importance  to  the  observations  of  the  Italian 
expedition,  whether  from  Windy  Gap  or  the  Chogolisa  pass,  as  has  already  been 
briefly  referred  to  in  the  addresses  given  by  His  Royal  Highness  and  published 
in  various  scientific  periodicals.^ 

As  regards  Windy  Gap,  this  has  already  been  dealt  with.  The  camp  on 
the  Chogolisa  pass  commanded  the  valley  of  the  Kondus,  a  glacier  which 
was  seen  to  intervene   between  the   Baltoro  and  the  recently  discovered  Upper 

'  More  recent  and  rigid  measurements  by  the  Indian  Trigonometrical  .Survej-  have  reduced 
this  figure.  The  final  calculations  are  not  complete  but  the  height  has  been  determined  as  about 
24,489  feet,  a  ficuro  which  can  be  relied  on  to  witliin  100  feet. — Oeog.  Jour.,  XXXIX,  Jan.  1912, 
p.  72. 

^  Dr.  LongstafT  has  recogni.sed  Teram  Kangri  in  a  photogi-aph,  taken  on  22nd  June,  1909, 
by  Vittorio  Sella  from  Windy  Gap.     Geog.  Jmim..  January,  1911. 

'  Rimsta  del  Clnb  Alp.  Ital.  XXIX,  pp.  26-35  (1910);  Boll.  Soc.  Geog.  Ital.  ser.  v,  XI,  pp.  4.54 
and  460  (1910). 


442  Appendix  C. 

Siachen.  The  valley  of  the  Kondiis,  dominated  by  the  peaks  K',  K",  K",  winds 
tortuously,  first  to  the  east,  then  to  the  north,  passing  round  the  bases  of  Golden 
Throne  and  Hidden  Peaks.  This  last  is  not  the  most  easterly  peak  of  the  Gasher- 
brum  group,  for  eastwards  of  Hidden  Peak  rises  another,  and  only  to  the  east  of 
this  does  a  deep  gap  form  the  true  limit  of  the  Gasherbrum  massif,  taken  in  a  wide 
sense,  and  the  head  of  the  Kondus  glacier.  The  Italian  expedition  believed  that 
this  was  in  truth  the  pass  at  the  head  of  the  Urdok  glacier,  seen  from  the  Oprang 
side  by  Younghusband,  and  for  this  reason. 

Beside  this  depression  another  was  seen,  formed  by  a  low  ridge,  separating 
the  Kondus  from  a  wide,  glacier-filled  valley  further  east,  which  is  probably  none 
other  than  the  Upper  Siachen.  The  low  crest  just  mentioned  rises  rapidly  towards 
the  south  into  the  high  mountains  between  the  Kondus  and  the  supposed  Siachen, 
and  to  the  east  into  other  lofty  mountains,  which  should  be  the  easterly  or  northerly 
continuation  of  Teram  Kangri,  if  not  this  mountain  itself. 

From  the  saddle  at  the  head  of  the  Kondus  it  seems  possible  to  descend  to  the 
Oprang  basin,  and  probably  into  the  Urdok  valley. 

If  the  map  accompanying  Dr.  LongstafE's  account  of  his  expedition  is  compared 
with  the  representation  of  the  Kondus  valley,  which  has  just  been  set  forth,  it  is 
evident  that  there  are  no  irreconcilable  differences.  The  Kondus  and  Siachen 
glaciers  end  in  two  depressions,  separated  by  a  low  crest,  which,  seen  from  a  distance, 
might  be  superimposed  on  each  other  by  an  eflect  of  perspective,  so  as  to  give  the 
impression  of  a  single  valley,  especially  from  the  relatively  low  point  where  Longstaff 
was  upon  the  Siachen,  at  about  16,000  feet,  an  impression  less  probable  from  the 
camps  of  His  Royal  Highness  on  Chogolisa,  at  an  elevation  of  22,000  feet,  equal 
to,  if  not  greater  than,  that  of  the  pass  in  question.  From  this  it  follows  that  the 
westernmost  extremity  of  the  Siachen  valley  will  not  communicate  directly  with 
the  Urdok,  but  only  with  the  Kondus,  whose  head  intervenes,  so  to  speak, 
between  the  valleys  of  the  Siachen  and  Urdok :  and  that  the  pass  seen  by  Sir  F. 
Younghusband  lies  between  this  latter  and  the  Kondus  valley. 

A  discovery  so  important  as  that  of  the  greater  extension  of  the  Siachen  has 
given  wide  field  for  conjecture  and  hypothesis,  and  to  considerable  divergence  of 
interpretation,  a  thing  which  is  natural  in  view  of  the  many  uncertainties  still 
existing.  Dr.  Longstaff,  and  still  more  distinctly  Dr.  Neve,  his  companion  in  part 
of  the  expedition,  have  expressed  in  their  writings  the  opinion  that  the  Siachen 
communicates  with  the  Baltoro  directly  over  a  saddle  at  the  base  of  Hidden  Peak, 
or  to  the  north  of  it,  in  the  same  way  that  the  Biafo  glacier  in  Baltistan  communi- 
cates with  the  Hispar.  In  the  first  place  this  supposed  continuity  of  the  two 
glaciers  does  not  exist.  South  of  the  Broad  massif  the  Kondus  glacier,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  is  insinuated  between  them.  The  valleys  which  descend  to  the  east 
and  north  of  the  massif  are  tributaries  of  the  Oprang,  either  by  means  of  the 
Gasherbrum  glacier  of  Younghusband,  or  by  the  Urdok ;    consequently  there  can 


Geolo<ijical  Results.  443 


be  no  direct  connection  between  the  Siaclien  and  Baltoro  glaciers.  Yet,  broadly 
speaking,  the  notion  implied  by  these  authors  might  be  extended  across  the 
gap  formed  by  tlie  Upper  Kondus,  and  it  might  be  maintained  that  the 
Baltoro  and  Siachen,  in  spite  of  a  brief  interruption,  lie  in  the  same  tectonic  furrow 
and  so  preserve  the  analogy  desired  by  Dr.  LongstafE.  But  not  even  in  this  way 
is  it  correct,  for  the  Biafo-Hispar  system  is  formed  by  two  longitudinal  valleys 
draining  in  opposite  directions,  in  a  furrow  which  is  orographically,  and  geologically, 
a  single  well-marked  feature.  The  Siachen-Baltoro  system,  on  the  other  hand, 
would  consist  of  a  longitudinal  valley  draining  to  the  south-east,  joined  by  a  series 
of  gaps  and  valleys,  found  along  its  prolongation  to  the  north-west,  with  the  distinctly 
transverse  valley  of  the  Lower  Baltoro.  The  supposed  analogy  therefore  does  not 
exist,  even  on  this  hypothesis ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Siachen  furrow 
continues  into  the  Urdok  across  the  two  contiguous  saddles. 

From  the  observations  made  by  the  two  expeditions  it  results  that  the  course 
of  the  water  parting  between  the  Indus  and  Yarkand  basins  is  very  difEerent  from 
what  had  been  believed  and  shown  on  maps. 

The  Karakoram,  like  the  Himalaya,  of  which  it  is  the  western  portion,  consists 
of  a  series  of  chains  parallel  to  each  other,  and  also  approximately  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  geological  zones  and  leading  tectonic  features,  ill-known  as  yet,  of 
the  whole  great  system.  The  rivers  flow  in  open  valleys  between  these  chains; 
and  narrow,  deep-cut  channels,  frequently  reduced  to  impassable  gorges,  by  which 
the  rivers  pass  from  one  valley  to  the  next,  sever  the  chains  in  pieces.  Consequently, 
although  the  lines  of  peaks  appear  continuous  on  the  map  and  exhibit  a  sensible 
parallehsm,  the  principal  watershed,  and  many  of  the  secondary  ones,  have  a  verj'' 
different  course,  proceeding  by  stretches  as  they  pass  from  one  range  to  another 
by  means  of  transverse  ridges,  which  separate  the  divergent  slopes  of  each  of  the 
furrows  contained  between  a  pair  of  ranges. 

On  the  whole  then,  as  this  passage  of  the  watershed  from  one  chain  to  the  next 
takes  place  for  long  stretches  in  a  regular  manner,  always  from  a  more  forward 
range  to  one  further  back,  the  complex  course  of  the  line  of  watershed  cuts,  at 
a  very  acute  angle,  the  general  direction  of  the  ranges,  so  that  it  is  easy,  in  ill-known 
parts  of  the  system,  to  confound  two  quite  distinct  members  with  each  other  and 
regard  them  as  only  one.  Just  this  confusion  was  made  in  all  maps  anterior 
to  1910  in  the  country  between  the  Upper  Baltoro  and  the  Karakoram  pass. 

The  discovery  of  the  Upper  Siachen,  and  of  Teram  Kangri,  has  shown  the 
existence  of  a  great  longitudinal  furrow,  occupied  by  a  glacier,  and  of  a  chain, 
parallel  to  that.  Well  known  and  fixed,  which  runs  from  K"  to  Hidden  Peak  and, 
up  to  now,  was  called  the  main  range  of  the  Karakoram.  The  ridge  by  which 
the  watershed  crosses  from  this  to  that  of  Teram  Kangri  is  formed  by  that  saddle 
between  the  head  of  the  Kondus  and  the  Siachen  which  was  seen  from  Chogolisa. 
The  chain  of  K-  is  truncated  bv  the  Kondus  vallev,  whose  tortuous  course  in  the 


444  Appeiulix  C. 

upper  part  indicates  a  breach  of  continuity,  tilled  with  ice,  but  where  this 
disappears,  exhibiting  itself  as  one  of  those  impassable  gorges  in  which  the  Karakoram 
is  rich.  It  is  probable  that  the  continuation  of  the  chain  of  K  ■  is  that  in  which 
the  peaks  K"  and  K'"-"  are  found,  these  latter  over  25,000  feet  in  height,  and 
in  the  Saltoro  chain  to  K'-  and  beyond. 

It  is  natural  to  enquire  what  may  be  the  influence,  on  the  morphology  of  the  region, 
of  the  junction  between  the  crystalline  and  sedimentary  rocks,  which,  in  the  Upper 
Baltoro  valley,  determines  the  furrow  extending  from  Windy  Gap  to  the  Chogolisa  pass. 
Probably  it  crosses  the  Upper  Kondus  valley  and  cuts  the  ridge  between  this  and 
the  Siachen  to  the  east  of  K'"-",  which  present  themselves,  orographically,  as 
the  homologue  of  Bride  Peak,  in  secondary  alignment  parallel  to  the  principal  range, 
and,  geologically,  as  the  continuation  of  the  crystalline  axis  of  K-.  If  the  depression 
along  the  plane  of  contact  continues  farther  to  the  south-east,  it  should  cross  the 
Siachen  valley  and  the  Murgisthang  pass,  to  reach  the  known  boundary  on  the 
Sasser  pass.  It  is  evident  therefore  that,  although  this  contact  determines  many 
and  important  orographical  details,  it  does  not  coiTespond  to  any  great  valley,  and 
still  less  to  a  furrow  of  primary  rank,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Biafo-Hispar  valley. 

In  conclusion  it  is  certain  that  the  water  parting  between  the  Indus  and  the 
Central  Asian  drainage,  after  passing  the  peaks  of  K",  Broad,  Gasherbrum  and 
Hidden,  turns  eastwards  to  a  parallel  range  which  bounds  the  Siachen  on  the  east 
and  probably  culminates  in  Teram  Kangri.  A  good  part  of  this  range  was  already 
known,  for  it  runs  from  the  Sasser  pass,  for  more  than  100  miles  south-eastwards 
to  the  Pangong  Lake,  and  is  cut  through  by  the  precipitous  gorge  of  the  Shyok,  in 
the  reach  which  lies  above  the  sharp  elbow  formed  by  this  river,  a  little  below  its 
junction  with  the  Chang-cheng-mo.  The  range  of  K"  runs  south-west  of  this,  and 
although  the  complexity  of  its  geological  composition — for  granites,  schists  and 
various  sedimentary  rocks  take  part  in  if — has  a  very  sensible  influence  in  multi- 
plying and  increasing  the  accidents  of  relief,  it  has  not  rendered  less  evident  the 
orographical  continuity,  wliich  is  obvious  enough  in  many  parts. 

The  two  chains  of  K^  and  Teram  Kangri,  are,  therefore,  well  distinct,  and  the 
resemblance  between  the  Karakoram  and  the  double  chain  of  the  Hindu  Kush, 
already  suspected  by  some,  has  a  real  basis.  The  latest  discoveries  have  revealed 
the  importance  of  the  Teram  Kangri  range,  wliich  is  promoted  from  the  position 
of  a  secondary  spur  of  the  presumed  watershed  range,  to  that  of  a  primary  range 
of  the  system.  The  continuation  of  this  range,  to  the  northwards,  is  certainly  that 
row  of  peaks,  which  the  Italian  expedition  observed  from  Windy  Gap,  and  which 
will  now  become  the  object  of  fresh  journeys  of  exploration. 

Geological  Survey  Office,  Rome,  July,  1911. 


Geological  Results.  445 


Having  been  asked  to  undertake  the  translation  and  revision  of  the  Appendix 
dealing  with  the  geological  results  of  the  expedition  made  by  His  Royal  Highness 
the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  to  the  Karakoram,  I  find  little  left  to  be  done  as  regards 
the  latter  half  of  the  task.  The  facts,  as  set  forth  by  Ing.  Novarese,  maj'  be 
accepted,  the  interpretation  follows,  for  the  greater  part,  with  logical  certainty. 
Only  in  two  parts  of  any  importance  do  I  find  myself  unable  to  accept  unreservedly 
the  opinions  expressed  in  the  note.  The  first  of  these  concerns  the  limestones  of 
Crystal  Peak  and  the  hills  eastwards  of  it.  In  the  note  they  are  regarded,  with 
very  little  hesitation,  as  belonging  to  the  older  gneissic  series,  and  as  lenticular 
inclusions  in  it.  This  interpretation  is  not  impossible,  but  it  seems  to  me  that 
insufficient  weight  has  been  given  to  earlier  observations,  and  that  the  case  for 
regarding  the  limestones  as  belonging  to  the  sedimentary  series,  either  as  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Gasherbrum  exposure  or  as  an  outlier,  is  stronger  than  is  represented 
by  the  text.  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  in  the  description  of  his  expedition,  expressly 
states  that  on  the  descent  from  his  Crystal  Peak  he  came  upon  "  a  new  set  of  rocks 
which  gave  a  fresh  character  to  the  ridge  separating  the  Baltoro  and  Godwin-Austen 
glaciers."  These  rocks  are  described  as  granites  and  hard  limestones,  light  grey, 
buff  and  white  in  colour,  of  which  seams  were  found  in  the  rocks  lower  down  the 
valley  but  here  forming  the  mass  of  the  mountains.  His  next  camp  up  the  glacier 
was  pitched  on  a  fan  composed  of  fragments  of  white  marble.  ^  In  the  description  of 
the  rocks  collected  in  situ  on  these  hills  it  is  stated  that  no  record  was  kept  of  the 
order  in  which  they  were  collected,  but  of  the  specimens  one  is  described  as  gneiss, 
one  as  mica  schist,  and  five  as  various  forms  of  limestones  ;  the  other  specimens 
are  one  of  syenite  and  one  of  quartz  associated  with  limestone  breccia.-  It  may  be 
noticed  that  the  gneiss  and  mica  schist  were  both  collected  on  the  ascent  of  Crystal 
Peak,  and  that  these  rocks  are  unrepresented  in  the  collection  from  the  WTiite  Fan 
pass ;  moreover,  from  the  latter  locality  came  a  greyish  crystalline  limestone, 
veined  with  noble  serpentine,  recalling  the  presence  of  similar  rocks  among  the 
moraine  debris  derived  fi'om  the  Gasherbrum  group  of  mountains,  and  the  occurrence 
of  serpentine  among  the  sedimentary  rocks  on  the  slopes  of  Mango  Gusor.' 

These  facts  render  it  at  least  possible  that  we  have  to  deal  with  an  exposure  of 
the  limestone  series,  penetrated  by  intrusive  veins  of  syenite  and  gneissose  granite, 
such  as  is  not  uncommoii  in  the  Himalayas.  It  may  be  that  the  boundary,  between 
the  areas  occupied  mainly  by  crystalline  and  b}'  sedimentary  rocks,  after  running 
down  the  Upper  Baltoro  valley,  crosses  the  main  glacier  and  passes  up  onto  the 
mountains  north  of  it,  thence,  turning  north-eastwards  near  the  Crystal  Peak,  it 

*  Climbing  in  the  Himalayas,  etc.,  pp.  465  ff. 

»  Prof.  T.  G.  Bosney  and  Miss  A.  C.  Raisdi.    Proc.  Boy.  Soc.  LV,  p.  486 ;   also  in  W.  M. 
ComvAY,  Climbing  in  the  Karaloram  Himalayas,  vol.  11,  Scientific  Results,  p.  73. 
'  Mem.  Geol.  Sun:  hid.  XXII,  p.  189. 


44C  Appendix  C 

would  run  down  to  the  valley  of  the  Godwin-Austen  glacier,  striking  it  near  the  sharp 
bend  and  following  the  general  course  of  the  upper  part  of  this  valley.  As  an 
alternative  the  Crystal  and  Marble  Peak  exposure  of  limestones  may  be  an  outlying 
area  of  sedimentary  rocks,  but  in  either  alternative  there  is  the  possibility,  which 
should  be  investigated  by  future  travellers,  of  the  occurrence  of  sedimentary  lime- 
stones in  the  hills  north  of  the  Baltoro  glacier. 

The  second  point,  on  which  something  more  remains  to  be  said,  is  the  minor 
classification  of  the  mountain  ranges.  The  view  advocated  by  Drs.  LongstafT  and 
Neve  is  rejected  on  the  ground  that  there  is  no  structural  continuity  between  the 
Siachen,  Baltoro  and  Biafo  valleys,  such  as  would  give  them  a  geological  unity 
and  justify  the  mountains  on  either  side  being  regarded  as  forming  two  separate 
ranges ;  but,  if  this  argument  is  allowed  to  prevail,  it  would  equally  militate  against 
the  view  which  regards  the  mountains  on  either  side  of  the  Oprang-Nubra  trough 
as  forming  a  pair  of  parallel  ranges,  for  this  orographical  depression  certainly  does  not 
follow,  but  runs  obliquely  to,  the  general  strike  of  the  leading  feature  in  thegeological 
structure  of  the  district,  namely,  the  Karakoram  syncline  of  sedimentary  rocks. 

This  argument  is  not,  however,  final,  for  the  movements  of  elevation,  which  have 
given  rise  to  the  mountains,  were  spread  over  a  long  period,  and  it  may  well  be 
that  the  latest  of  them,  those  which  determined  the  rows  of  peaks  as  they  now 
stand,  did  not  exactly  follow  the  earlier  ones,  by  which  the  leading  features  of 
geological  structure  were  marked  out.  Moreover,  the  case  for  the  classification 
adopted  in  the  note  is  stronger  than  is  there  set  forth,  for  not  only  is  the  Oprang- 
Nubra  trough  similar  to  the  much  larger  depression  formed  by  the  Sutlej  and  Sanpo 
valleys  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Himalayas,  but  there  is  an  apparent  connection 
between  the  two,  for  the  former  is  continued  south-eastwards  by  the  Shyok  valley 
up  to  the  elbow,  where  it  bends  from  a  southerly  to  a  north-westerly  course,  and 
thence  by  the  lower  part  of  the  Pangong  Lake  to  the  Upper  Indus,  and  by  this  to 
the  Sutlej  valley.  To  the  south-east  this  line  of  valleys  has  been  held  to  be 
sufficient  reason  for  separating  the  Himalayas,  on  the  south,  from  the  moiuitains 
to  the  north,  so  that  if  lug.  Novarese  errs  in  separating  the  Teram  Kangri  peaks 
from  those  of  the  K'  and  Gasherbrum  group,  he  errs  in  good  company.  iVnd  if 
this  view  is  accepted,  then  the  series  of  peaks,  labelled  K  with  a  number  by  the 
Survey  of  India,  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same  range  that  is 
crossed  by  the  Karakoram  pass,  and  a  different  name,  Mustagh  for  choice,  would 
have  to  be  given  to  them  and  to  the  mountains  which  have  been  repeatedly 
described  as  the  Karakoram  Himalayas. 

It  is,  however,  by  no  means  certain  that  this  view  of  the  grouping  of  the  peaks 
into  ranges  is  correct.  It  is  natural  for  geographers  to  seek  a  parallelism  between 
the  minor  members  of  a  great  chain  of  mountains  and  the  general  direction  of  the 
whole,  and  the  intricac}'  of  the  valley  systems,  cut  back  at  times  along  the  strike- 
line  between  minor  ranges,  and  at  others  across  and  through  them,  makes  it  not 


Geological  Iiesults.  447 

impossible  to  find  justification  for  dividing  the  mountain  chain,  as  a  whole,-  into  a 
series  of  parallel  ranges,  running  along  the  length  of  the  chain.  Yet,  although  it  may 
be  possible  to  adopt  a  nomenclature  expressing  this  view,  it  does  not  follow  that 
the  names  represent  what  really  occurs  in  nature,  and  there  is  another  aspect  of 
the  case  which  is  at  least  ec^ually  worthy  of  consideration,  that  the  individual 
members  of  the  chain  are  ranged  not  along,  but  oblicpiely  transverse  to,  the  general 
direction  of  the  whole,  much  like  the  arrangement  of  the  individual  birds  in  a  flock 
of  wild  geese,  or  the  individual  regiments  of  an  army  ranged  in  echelon. 

The  study  of  areas  of  structural  elevation,  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  of  less  com- 
plication, than  a  mountain  range,  shows  that  the  principal  anticline  is  often  crossed 
by  minor  ones,  ranged  obliquely  to  it,  so  that  the  margin  of  the  area  of  uplift  is 
marked  by  a  series  of  open  folds,  all  pitching  in  the  same  direction  and  advancing 
one  beyond  the  other.  It  is  not  unnatural  to  suppose  that  a  similar  feature  may 
be  found  on  a  larger  scale  in  great  mountain  ranges,  and  on  this  view  the  Teram 
Kangri  and  Gasherbrum  j)eaks  would  fall  into  the  same  range,  continued  probably 
to  K-,  and  the  Mustagh  Peaks.  Nor  would  the  interruption  of  the  range  by  the  deep 
gap  between  Teram  Kangri  and  Gasherbrum,  or  by  the  Godwin -Austen  glacier 
valley  between  that  and  K  -,  afEect  the  structural  unity  of  the  range,  for  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  peaks  are  peaks  because  the  agencies  of  denudation  have  not 
yet  had  time  to  remove  them,  though  they  have  removed  all  the  surrounding  rock : 
on  the  other  hand  the  peaks  owe  their  elevation  to  the  fact  that  the  rock  of  which 
they  are  composed  has  been  uplifted,  and  where  we  find  a  group  of  peaks  rising 
much  above  those  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  we  may  conclude  that  this  great 
elevation  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  last  episode,  in  the  general  uplift  of  the  moun- 
tains, was  a  more  rapid  and  greater  upheaval  of  the  particular  region  in  which  the 
high  peaks  are  found. 

It  might  be,  of  course,  that  there  were  two  neighbouring  areas  of  such  special 
elevation,  one  marked  by  the  Teram  Kangri  group  of  peaks,  the  other  by  the  K-, 
Broad,  Gasherbrum  and  Hidden  Peaks,  and  that  between  them  lay  a  zone  of  lesser 
uplift.  A  more  probable  case,  however,  is  that  these  two  groups  of  verj'  high  peaks 
form  parts  of  the  same  general  area  of  special,  recent,  uplift,  and  this  special  up- 
heaval may  have  determined  the  position  of  the  watershed,  which  crosses 
the  Oprang-Xubra  trough.  If  this  is  the  case,  K"  and  the  Mustagh  Peaks  are 
restored  to  that  group  of  ranges  crossed  by  the  Karakoram  pa-ss,  which  together 
have  come  to  be  known  as  the  Karakoram  mountains. 

That  such  widely  divergent  views  of  the  classification  of  these  mountains  can 
be  put  forward,  without  any  possibility  of  even  indicating  which  is  likeh'  to  be 
ultimately  accepted,  shows  how  little  is  really  known  as  yet,  and  how  much  remains 
to  be  done  before  the  structure  of  this  region  can  be  rationally  discussed,  much  less 
said  to  be  properly  understood. 

Horsham,  February  20th,  1912. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF    THE    GEOLOGY    OF    BALTISTAN 
AND    THE    SURROUNDING    COUNTRY. 


1883.  R.  Lydekker.  Geologv  of  the  Cashmir  and  C'hamba  Territories  and  the  British  District 
of  Khagan  :  Memoirs  of  the.  Geohgical  Survey  of  India,  Vol.  XXII.  [Contains  the  only 
general  geological  map  of  Kashmir,  also  a  complete  bibliography  of  earlier  accounts 
containing  any  geological  references.  To  save  space  reference  is  made  to  this  for  the 
bibliography  previous  to  1883.] 

1883.  H.  H.  Godwin  Austen.     Presidential  Address  to  Section  E  of  the  British  Association  : 

Report,  Southport,  1883,  pp.  576-589  :    also  in  Proceedings  of  the.  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  New  Series,  Vol.  V,  pp.  610-625. 

1884.  H.  H.  Godwin  Austen.     The  Mountain  Systems  of  the  Himalayas  and  Neighbouring 

Ranges  of  India  :   Proc.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc,  New  Series,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  83-87. 
188.5.     E.  SuEss.     Das  Antlitz  der  Erde,  Bd.  I,  p.  565. 

1893.  R.    D.    Oldham.     A  Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India,  by  H.  B.  Medlicott  and  W.  T. 

Blanford ;    2nd  edition,  revised  and  largely  rewritten  by  R.  D.  Oldham. 

1894.  W.  M.  Conway  (Sir).     Climbing  and  Exploration  in  the  Karakoram  Himalayas.     London. 

Edition  de  Luxe,  in  2  vols.,  containing  scientific  results  and  map  ;  also  an  edition  in 

1  vol.  without  scientific  results  or  map. 
1894.    T.  G.  BoNNEY  (Prof.)  and  A.  C.  Raisin  (Miss).    Notes  on  Mr.  W.  M.  Conway's  collection 

of  Rock  Specimens  from  the  Karakoram  Himalayas  ;   Vol.  II,  pp.  41-73,  of  Sir  y\'.  M. 

Conway  s  Climbitig  in  the  Karakoram  Uimnlnyas. 
1894.     T.  G.  BoNNEY  (Prof.)  and  A.  C.  Raisin  (Miss).     On  Rocks  and  Minerals  collected  by 

Mr.  W.  M.  Conway  in  the  Karakoram  Himalayas  :   Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society, 

Vol.  LV,  pp.  468-487.     [Identical  with  the  preceding  as  regards  general  summary, 

but  less  detailed  as  regards  description  of  individual  specimens.] 
1901.     E.  SuESS.     Das  Antlitz  der  Erde.     Bd.  III.  p.  344. 
1904  (?)     J.  Jacot  Gutll.\jrmod.      Six  Mois  dans  1" Hi malaya,  le  Karakoram  et  I'Hindu-Kush. 

Neuchatel  (no  date  ;   expedition  in  1902). 

1905.  A.  C.  F.  Ferber.     Die  Erkundung  des  Mustagh  passes  in  Karakoram  Himalaya :    Zeit- 

schrift  des  dcufschen  nnd  oesterreirhisrhen  Alpenvcreins,  Vol.  XXXVI,  pp.   113-132: 
Translated  in  BoUetino  del  Club  Alpino  Italiano,  1906,  p.  319  ff. 

1906.  K.  Oestreich.      Die  Taler  des  nordwestlichen  Himalaya :    Pelennanns  Miltheilungen, 

Eiganzimgsheft,  No.  155.     Contains  many  bibliographical  references. 
1907-S.     S.  G.  BuRRAED  (Col.)  and  H.  H.  Hayden.      .A  Skctcli  of  the  tocography  and  Geology  of 

the  Himalaya  Mountains  and  Tibet.     Calcutta. 
1910.     C.  S.  MiDDLEinss.     A  re\-ision  of  the  Silurian -Trias  Sequence  in  Kashmir:    Records  of 

the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Vol.  XL,  pp.  206-260. 
1910.     H.R.H.  The  Duke  of  the  .Abruzzi.      Esplorazione  nei  Monti  del  Karakoram  :   Uolletino 

della   Sociela   Geographica   Italiana,   Serie   iv,   Vol.    XI,   pp.    435-4C9. 
(9221)  2  K 


450  Bibliography  of  the  Geology  of  Baltistan,  &c. 

1910.     T.    G.    LoNGSTAFF.     Glacier    Exploration    in    the    Eastern    Karakoram.     Geographical 

Journal,   Vol.    XXXV,  pp.   622-658. 
1910.     H.R.H.  The  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi.     Viaggio  di  Esplorazione  nei  Monti  del  Karakoram. 

[Address  delivered  to  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  at  Turin.]     Rivisin  del  Club  Aipino 

Italiano,  Vol.  XXIX,  pp.  20-35. 

1910.  A.  Neve.     The  Ranges  of  the  Karakoram  :   Gcog.  Jour.,  Vol.  XXXVI,  pp.  571-577. 

1911.  C.  S.  HIiDDLEMlss.     Sections  in  the  Pir  Panjal  Range  and  Sind  Valley,  Kashmir:    Bev. 

Qeol  Surv.  Ind.,  Vol.  XLI,  pp.  113-144. 

1911.  F.  De  Filippi.      The  Expedition  of  H  R.H.  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  to  the  Karakoram 

Himalayas  :   Geog.  Jour.,  Vol.  XXXVII,  pp.  19-30. 

1912.  S.  G.  BuKRARD  (Col.).      The  Height  of  Teram  Kangri.     (A  communication  from  Col. 

S.  Burrardto  Dr.  T.  G.  Longstaff)  see  Geog.  Jour.,  Vol.  XXXIX,  pp.  71-72. 


ROCK    SPECIMENS    COLLECTED    ON    THE    BALTORO 

MORAINES. 


PLATE  I. 
Fig.  1.     Rose-coloured,  veined  limestone. 

Fig.  2.     Many-coloured  breccia  of  limestone  fragments  and  sericitic  cement. 
Fig.  3.     Many-coloured  breccia  of  limestone  fragments  and  yellow  calcareous  cement. 
Fig.  4.     As  Fig.  2,  with  the  fragments  more  scattered  and  subordinate  to  the  matrix. 

PLATE  II. 

Fig.    1.     Brecciated  violet-coloured   limestone   (pavonazetto).     The   deeply   coloured  portion   is 

schist. 
Fig.  2.     Marble  blotched  with  red. 

Fig.  3.     Rose-coloured  limestone  {persichino),  minutely  brecciated. 
Fig.  4.     Brecciated  violet  limestone  with  greenish  tinting.    The  deeply  coloured  part  is  a  reddish 

violet  schist ;     the  green  coloration  is  due  to  infiltration  of  the  part  originally 

white. 


(9221)  2  F  2 


Appendix  D. 


BOTANICAL    REPORT 

BY 

Prof.   R.   PIROTTA 

AND 

Dr.    F.   CORTESI 
UPON  THE  PLANTS  GATHERED  BY  THE  EXPEDITION. 


(9221) 


2  F  3 


Appendix  D. 


BOTANICAL    REPORT 


UPON    THE    PLANTS    GATHERED    BY    THE    EXPEDITION. 


I.— LIST    OF    PLANTS    GATHERED. 


A. — Braldoh  and  Biafo  Valleys. 


iv^->>i  -- 


Oxyiropis  microphylla  DC. 
Papilionacea,  sp.  indet. 
Myricaria  elegans  Royle. 
Hippophde  rJinmnoldes  L. 
Daphne  oleoides  Schreb. 
Primula  farinosa  L. 
Macrotomia  perennis  Boiss. 
(9-221) 


I^PHEDRA  pachyclada  Boiss. 
Salix  sp. 
Clematis  orientalis  L.  var.  ? 
Berberis  vulgaris  L.  var.  aetnensis 

Presl. 
CJieiranthus  himalayensis  Camb. 
Cleome  sp.  ? 

Saxifmga  iitibricata  Royle. 
Colutea  arborescens  L.  var.  nepalen- 

sis  L. 
Astragalus  sp. 
Chesneya  cuneata  Beiith. 
Caragana  polyamntlia  Royle. 
Nepeta  discolor  Royle. 
Lonicera  microphylla  Willd. 
Erigeron  andryaloides  C.  B.  Clarke. 
Anaphalis  virgata  Thorns. 
Artemisia  sp. 

Artemisia  sp.  aff.  Absinthium  L.  ? 
Chondrilla  graminea  Benth. 

2  F  4 


45C 


Appendix   L). 


Poa  sp. 

Festuca  sp. 

Lloydia  serotina  Rchb. 

Oxijria  digyna  Hill. 

Silene  Moorcroftiana  Wall. 

LycJmis  apetaki  L. 

Stelktria   graminea    L.    var. 

Edgew.  &  Hook.  fil. 
Delphinium  Brunonianum  Royle. 
Papaver  nudicaule  L. 
Sedum  aff.  atropurpureum  Tuicz.  ? 
PotentiUa  albifolia  Wall. 
Potenlilla  sericea  L.  var.  ? 
PotentiUa  sp.  ? 

Aslrarjalus  Candolleanus  Royle. 
Oxi/tropis  kipponica  Gaud. 


montioides 


B.— Lower  Baltoro  and  Rdokass. 

Oxytropis  lapponica  Gaud.  var.  kumifusa 

Kar.  et  Kir. 
Epilobium  latifolium  L. 
PiroJa  rot  II  ndi folia  L. 
Primula  jarinosa  L. 
Gentiana  aqualica  L.  var.  ? 
Gentiana  detonsa  Fries. 
Gentiana  sect.  Comastoma  sp. 
Lonicera  asperifoUa  Hook.  fil.  &  Thonis. 
Codonopsis  ovata  Benth. 
Aster  heterochaeta  Benth. 
Allardia  nivea  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns. 
Chrysanthemum  tibeticum    Hook.    fil.    & 

Thorns. 
Taraxacum  officinale  L. 
Taraxacum  officinale  L.  var.    eriopodum 

DC. 


C— Upper  Baltoro  (above  15,000  feet). 


Carex  atrata  L. 
Lychnis  apetala  L. 
Isopyrum  f/randiflorum  Fisch. 
Braya  uniflora  Hook.  fil.  &  Thonis. 
Saxifraga  flagellaris  Willd.   var.   mucro- 

nukita  Royle. 
Saxifraga  imhricata  Royle. 
PotentiUa  fruticosa  L.  var.  pumila  Hook. 

fil.  forma  grandiflora. 


PotentiUa  ochreata  Lehm.  ? 
Merlensia  primuloides  Clarke. 
Nepeta  longibracteata  Benth.  ? 
Leontopodium   alpinum    L.    var.    nivale 

Ten. 
Allardia  tomentosa  Dene.  ? 
Allardia  vestita  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns. 
Sedum  Rhodiola  DC. 


Cystopteris  fragilis  Bernh.  ? 
Chenopodium  album  L. 
Polygonum  viviparum  L. 
Oxyria  digyna  Hill. 
Silene  Moorcroftiana  Wall. 
Lychnis  nigrescens  Edgew. 
Cerastium  trigynum  L. 
Cerastium  I'ulgatum  L.  var. 
Delphinium  Brunonianum  Royle. 


D. — Skoro-La. 

Aconilum  Napellus  L.  var.  rotundifolium. 

Hook.  f.  &  Thorns. 
Arabis  ? 

Sedum  Rhodiola  DC. 
Sedum  Erersii  Ledeb. 
Saxifraga  sibirica  L. 
Saxifraga  flagellaris  AVilld.   var.   mucro- 

nulata  Royle. 
PotentiUa   multifida  L.    var.   angustifolia 

Lehm. 


Botanical  Report. 


457 


Potentilla  ochreata  Lehni. 

Potentilla    hifurca    L.    var.    Moorcroftii 

Wall. 
Potentilla  Mica  Th.  W. 
Rosa     macrophylla     Lindl.     var.     minor 

Lindl. 
Oxytropis  lapponica  Gaud.  \'ar.  typica. 
Oxytropis  mollis  Royle. 
Geranium  pratense  L.  ? 
Geranium  sp. 
Epilobimn  latifolium  L. 
Bupleurum   longicaule   Wall    var.    Iiima- 

lensis  Klotsch. 
Primula  farinosa  L. 
Gentiana  aquatica  L.  var. 
GerUiana  sp. 
Pleurogyne  carinlhiaca  L. 


Mertensia  tihetica  Clarke. 

Myosolis  sylvatica  Hoffm. 

Thymus  Serpyllum  L. 

Pedicularis  peclinata  Wall. 

Pedicularis  bicornula  Kl. 

Lonicera  microphylla  Willd. 

Valeriana  dioiea  L. 

Aster  sp. 

Leontopodium   alpinum   L.    var.    nivale 

Ten. 
Erigeron  alpinus  L.  ? 
Anapkalis  nubigena  DC. 
Tanacetum  sp. 
Artemisia  sp. 

Chrysanthemum  Stoliczkae  C.  B.  Clarke. 
Satcssurea  Schultzii  Hook.  f.  ? 
Taraxacum  officinale  L.  forma. 


E.— Deosai  Tableland  (14,000  feet). 


Carex  nivalis  Boott. 

Polygonum  affine  Don. 

Rumex  sp. 

Cerastium  trigynum  L. 

Ranunculus  nivalis  L. 

Thaliclrum  minus  L.  ? 

Aconitum   A^apellus   L.    var.    multifidum 

Hook.  fil.  &  Th. 
Papaver  nudicaule  L. 
Corydalis  ramosa  Wall.  var.  glauca  Hook. 
Draba  glacialis  Adams. 
Chorispora  sabulosa  DC. 
Sedum  Rhodiola  DC. 
Sedum  aflf.  atropurpureum  Turcz.  ? 
Saxifraga  flagellaris  Willd.   var.    mucro- 

nukita  Royle. 
Potentilla  argyrophylla  Wall. 
Oxytropis  sp. 

Geranium  aconilifolium  L'Herit.  ? 
Bupleurum  falcatum  L.  var.  nigrocarpum 

Jaquem. 
Primula  purpurea  Royle. 


Gentiana  sp. 

Swertia  pedunculala  Royle. 

Eritricliium  sp. 

Stachys  tibetica  Vatke. 

Thymus  Serpyllum  L. 

Ferowica  alpina  L. 

Pedicularis  pectinata  Wall. 

Pedicularis  bicornuta  Kl. 

Pedicularis  cheilanthijolia  Schrenk. 

Pedicularis  rhinanthoides  Schrenk. 

Campanula      modesta     Hook.      fil.     & 

Thorns. 
Aster  himalaicus  Clarke. 
Leontopodium  alpinum  Cass.  var.  nivale 

Ten. 
Atutphalis  nubigena  DC. 
Tanacetum  sp. 
Senecio  aff.  tibeticus  Hook. 
Cremanthodium  afF.  Decaisnei  Clarke. 
Jurinea  macrocephala  Benth. 
Saussurea  sp. 
Crepis  glomerata  Dene.  ? 


i.w  Appendix  D. 


II.— CLASSIFICATION    OF    SPECIMENS. 


Polypodiaceae. 

Cystopleris  fragilis  Bernh.  ?  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side  ;  10,000-13,000 
feet. 

Gnetaceae. 

Ephedra  pachyclada   Boiss.     Between   Dusso   and   Askoley,    Braldoh   valley 
(8,000-10,000  feet)  ;    ll-14th  May,  1909. 

Poaceae. 

Poa  sp.     Rdokass  ;   13,025  feet ;  June-July,  1909. 
Festuca  sp.     Rdokass  ;   13,025  feet ;  June-July,  1909. 

Both  these  grasses  are  represented  by  fragmentary  specimens,  \\itliout  rhizomes  or  basal 
leaves. 

Cyperaceae. 

Carex  alrata  L.     Vigne  glacier,  at  about  16,500  feet ;   15th  July,  1909. 
This  species  is  not  indicated  for  the  region  in  the  publications  of  previous  explorers. 
Carex  nivalis  Boott.     W.  Hunter  Workman  and  F.  Bullock  Workman  :    "  The 
Call  of  the  Snowy  Hispar,"  p.  28G.     Deosai  tableland  ;  14,000  feet ;  2nd-3rd  August, 

1909. 

The  Workman  expedition  found  this  species  (which  is  common  in  the  Himalaya,  Western 
Tibet  and  tlu-  Karakorani)  on  the  Hispar  glacier,  between  13,000  and  l^j.^OO  feet. 

Lloydia  serolina  Rchb.  Sir  W.  M.  Conway  :  "  Climbing  and  Exploration  in 
the  Karakoram  Himalayas,  Scientific  Reports,"  p.  83  ;  W.  Hunter  Workman  and 
F.  Bullock  Workman,  op.  cit.  p.  286.     Rdokass  ;   13,025  feet ;  June-July,  1909. 

Allium  odorum  Linn.     (No.  70  without  locality  !). 

Conway  (loc.  cit.)  cites  for  the  Baltoro  valley  A.  senescens  Miq.  =  .1.  tuberosum  Roxb.  Our 
plant  is  without  doubt  A.  odorum  L.,  with  the  characteristic  oblique  rhizome  covered  with 
numerous  whitish  fil)rcs,  finely  reticulated. 

Salicaceae. 

Salix  sp.  ind.     Askoley  ;   15th  June,  1909. 

The  leaves  of  this  willow  are  covered  with  rounded  reddish  galls.  It  may  be  the  species  of 
Salix  cited  by  Conway  (p.  83)  and  by  the  Workmans  (p.  286)  as  Salix,  not  detemiinable.gathered 
on  the  Hispar  glacier  at  13,000  feet. 


Botanical  Ivcport.  459 

Chenopodiaceae. 

Ckenopodhim  album  L.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side  ;  10,000-13,000  feet ; 
28th  July,  1909. 

Polygonaceae. 

Polygonum  viviparum  L.  Conway,  p.  83.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side  ; 
10,000-13,000  feet. 

Among  the  numerous  examples  of  this  species  are  some  wliicli  may  easily  be  referable  to 
a  minor  form. 

Polyi/nnum  ciffine  Don.  Conway,  p.  83.  Deosai  tableland  ;  about  14,000  feet ; 
2nd-3rd  .Vugust,  1909. 

Oxyria  digyna  Hill.  Conway,  p.  83  ;  Workman,  p.  287.  Moraine  of  the 
Baltoro,  below  Rdokass ;  16-17th  May,  1909.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side  ; 
10,000-13,000  feet. 

Rumex  sp.     Deosai  tableland  ;   about  14,000  feet  ;   2nd-3rd  August,  1909. 

In  the  absence  of  mature  fruit  a  more  precise  identification  is  not  possible. 

Dianthaceae. 

Silene  Moorcroftiana  Wall.  Conway,  p.  78.  Moraine  of  the  Baltoro,  below 
Rdokass,  20th  July,  1909  ;  and  ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet, 
28th  July. 

Lychnis  apetala  L.  Conway,  p.  78.  Rdokass,  13,025  feet  ;  Vigne  glacier, 
at  about  10,500  feet ;   15th  July,  1909. 

Lychnis  nigrescens  Edgew.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La  ;  between  Askoley  and  the 
foot  of  the  Skoro  La  glacier  ;  9,500-12,800  feet ;  28th  July,  1909. 

Cerasiium  trigynum  L.  Conway,  p.  78  ;  AVorkman,  p.  287.  Deosai  tableland  ; 
about  14,000  feet ;  2nd-3rd  August.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side  ;  10,000- 
13,000  feet ;  28th  July,  1909. 

Cerastium  vulgatum  L.  var.  ?  Ascent  of  Skoro  La.  northern  slope  ;  28th  July, 
1909. 

A  fragmentary  specimen  ;   referable  to  one  of  the  numerous  forms  of  C.  lulgaliim. 

Stellaria  graminea  L.  var.  montioides  Edgew.  &  Hook.  fil.  Rdokass ;  13,025  feet ; 
June-July. 

Ranunculus  nivalis  L.  Deosai  tableland  ;  ca.  14,000  feet  ;  2nd-3rd  August, 
1909. 

Iso'pyrum  grandiflorum  Fisch.  Conway,  p.  78.  Rocks  at  tlie  head  of  the 
Baltoro  ;  western  spur  of  Gasherbrum  ;   18,000  feet ;  27th  June,  1909. 

A  diminutive  form,  doubtless  referable  to  this  species,  which  is  found  at  great  heights. 
Conway's  expedition  having  gathered  it  at  some  16,000  feet  alrove  sea  level. 


460  Appendix    I). 

Thaliclrum  minus  L.  ?  Deosai  tableland  ;  about  14,000  feet ;  2nd-3rd  August, 
1909. 

Fragmentary  specimen,  only  showing  foliage. 

Clematis  orientalis  L.  var.  ?     Braldoh  valley,  among  the  .stones  of. 

From  the  shape  of  the  leaves  thi.s  would  appear  to  be  C.  orientalis,  which  is,  however,  a 
variable  and  polymorphous  species. 

Delphinium  Brunonianum  Rovle.  Conway,  p.  77.  Rdokass;  13,025  feet; 
June-July,  1909.  A.scent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side;  10,000-13,000  feet ;  28th  July, 
1909. 

A  beautiful  plant  with  large  fine  lilue  flowers,  quite  worth  cultivating  for  ornamental 
purposes. 

Aconilum  Napellus  L.  var.  muUifidum  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns.  Deosai  tableland  ; 
about  14,000  feet  ;   28th  July,  1909. 

Var.  rotundilolium  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns.  Conway,  p.  77.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La, 
north  side  :    10.000-13,000  feet. 


Berberidaceae. 

Berberis  ruhjaris  L.  var.  aetnensis  Pre.sl.  pro  specie.  Braldoh  valley  between 
Dusso  and  Askoley  ;   7,900-10,000  feet  ;   ll-14th  May,  1909. 

This  specimen  is  doubtless  to  be  referred  to  the  form  described  by  Presl,  with  the  leaves 
obovate  mucronulate,  spinulose -serrulate,  with  the  nervation  prominent  on  the  under  side. 

Papaveraceae. 

Papaver  nudicauh  L.  Conway,  p.  77.  Rdokass,  13,025  feet ;  Deosai  tableland, 
about  14,000  feet. 

The  specimen  from  the  Deosai  tableland  is  more  hispid  than  those  gathered  at  Rdoka-ss. 

Meconopsis  aculeata  Royle  ?     Rajdiangan  or  Tragbal ;  8th  August,  1909. 

The  determination  of  this  species  i.s  doubtful,  because  its  characteristics  do  not  fully 
correspond  with  those  of  M.  aculentn.  particularly  with  regard  to  the  shape  and  appearance  of  the 
fruit,  which  seems  similar  to  that  of  Meconopsis  sinunta.  With  more  abundant  material 
for  purposes  of  comparison  we  should  have  been  able  to  decide  if  this  form  should  be  considered 
a  new  one. 

Dr.  De  Filippi  says  the  plant  is  common  within  a  limited  area,  where  it  is  called  "  Blue 
Poppy." 

Corydalis ramosa  Wall.  var.  glauca  Hook.  Deosai  tableland ;  about  13,000-14.W0 
feet. 

Cruciferae. 

Draha  glacialis  Adam.  Conway,  p.  78.  Deosai  tableland  ;  about  14,000 
feet. 

Chorispora  sabulosa  DC.  Conway,  p.  78.  Deosai  tableland;  about  14,000 
feet. 


Botanical  Report. 


461 


Cheiranthus  Jiunalayensis  Camb.  Between  Dusso  and  Askoley,  Braldoh  vallev; 
7,900-10,000  feet. 

Arabis  ?     A.scent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side ;    10,000-13,000  feet. 

Brayn  umflora  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns.  Rocks  at  the  head  of  the  Baltoro,  about 
18,000  feet,   29th  June,  1909  ;   and  Vigne  glacier,  16,."jOO  feet. 

Capparidaceae. 

Cleowe,  ?     Braldoh  valley,  between  Dusso  and  Askoley  ;  7,900-10,000  feet. 


FIG.    I. — SKDIM    KHODIOLA    DC. 

[(Jntlii  Tid  at  tlu-  end  of  the  right-hand  spur  of  the  Vigne,  16,500  feet.] 


Crassulaceae. 

Seduw,  Rhodiola  DC.  AVorkman.  j}.  287.  (Pro  sphalm.  S.  Rhaviala  et 
S.  Rhadiola.)  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  .side,  10,000-13,000  feet ;  and  Deosai 
tableland,  about  14,000  feet  ;  fl.  et  frucl. 

Among  the  specimens  gatliored  at  Skoro  La  is  one  with  a  fiu^ciation  of  the  apex  of 
the  axis  of  the  inflorescence  and  of  the  inflorescence  itself.  This  beautiful  ]ilant  is  shown 
in  Fig.  I,  as  photographed. 


402 


AjUK'iidix    1). 


Sedum  sect.  Rhodiola  aff.  atropurpureum  Turcz.  ?  Rdokass,  13,025  feet ; 
Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Our  specimens  arc  probably  closely  related  to,  if  not  identical  with  Sedum  airo-purpurtuin 
Turcz,  of  Central  Asia.     We  have  no  means  of  comparison  to  settle  the  matter  with  certainty. 

Sedum  Eioersii  Ledeb.  Conway,  op.  cit.,  p.  80.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side; 
11,000-13,000  feet. 

Cotyledon  aff.  spinosa  L.     (Without  locality ! ) 

Cotyledon  ?     (Above  Paiju.) 

A  single  rosette  of  large  fleshy  leaves,  much  deteriorated  by  treatment  with  alcohol  and  hot 
water.     Would  appear  to  be  a  Cotyledon. 


FIG.   n. ^SAXIFRAGA  EMBRICATA   KOYLE. 

[Gathered  on  the  rocks  of  the  western  spur  of  Gasherbrura,  about  18,000  feet.] 


Saxifragaceae. 

Saxifraga  sibirica  L.  Conway,  p.  79.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side;  11,000- 
13,000  feet. 

Saxifraga  imhricata  Ro3-Ie.  Conway,  p.  79.  Braldoh  valley,  between  Dusso 
and  Askoley ;  7,900-10,000  feet ;  according  to  photograph  also  on  western  spur  of 
Gasherbrum,  18,000  feet. 

The  example  representing  this  species  in  the  collection  is  very  poor,  but  it  is  supplemented 
by  the  fine  photograph  here  reproduced  (Fig.  II). 


Botanical  Report. 


4G3 


Saxifracja  flagellaris  Willd.  Conway,  p.  79.  Var.  mucromdata  Royle  pro  sp. 
Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet ;  Deosai  tableland,  14,000  feet  ; 
moraine  of  the  Baltoro,  between  11,000-13,025  feet. 

Our  example  must  bs  referable  to  Royle's  variety,  on  account  of  the  ciliated  and  sub- 
spinulose  edges  of  the  leaves. 

Rosaceae. 

Potentilla  fruticosa  L.  var.  pumila  Hook.  fil.  Conway,  op.  cit.,  p.  79  ;  Workman, 
op.  cit.,  p.  287  ;  Th.  Wolf :  "  Monogr.  der  Gattung  Potentilla,"  p.  59.  Vigne 
glacier  ;    about  16,500  feet. 


FIG.    m. POTEXTILL-V    FRUTICOSA   VAK.    PFMILA    HOOK.    FH-. 

[Gathered  at  the  end  of  the  right  spur  of  the  Vigne,  ca.  16,500  feet.] 


The  example  consists  of  a  small  fragment,  but  the  identification  is  assisted  by  the  fine 
photograph  (Fig.  III).  According  to  what  Wolf  says  in  the  Monograph  cited  above,  the  plant  in 
the  photograph  having  the  flowers  with  long  peduncles,  must  b?  referable  to  P.  jrulicosa  var. 
pumila  Hook  fil.  forma  grandi flora  Th.  W. 

Potentilla  argyrophylla  Wall.  Conway,  p.  79  ;  Workman,  p.  287.  Deosai 
tableland,  about  14,000  feet,  2nd-3rd  August,  1909  ;  Tragbal  pass,  8th  August. 
1909. 


464  Appendix   I). 

Potenlilla  sericea  L.  var.  ?     Conway,  p.  79  ;   Workman,  p.  287.     Rdokass. 

Our  example,  which  is  very  poor,  must  surely  be  referable  to  a  variety  of  this  species, 
proliably  to  damjphijllti  Ledeb. 

Potentilla  multifida  L.  var.  anfjusti/olia  Lchni.  Skoro  La,  north  side;  9,.'30()- 
12,800  feet. 

Potentilla  ochreata  Lehm.  ?  Vigne  glacier  ;  about  16,500  feet.  Ascent  of  Skoro 
La ;  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Potentilla  hijurca  L.  Conway,  p.  79 ;  var.  Moorcrojtii  Wall.  Ascent  of  Skoro 
La,  north  side ;    10,000-13,000  feet. 

Potentilla  indica  Th.  W.  Between  Askoley  and  the  foot  of  the  Skoro  La  glacier ; 
9,500-12,800  ft. 

Potentilla  alhifolia  Wall.  =  Sibbaldia  potentlUoides  Camb.  Baltoro  moraine, 
between  11,000-13,025  feet  ;   also  below  Paiju,  about  11,000  feet. 

Potentilla  sp.     Vicinity  of  Rdokass  camp,  13,025  feet. 

Posa  macrophylla  Lindl.  Conway,  p.  79  ;  var.  minor  Lindl.  Ascent  of  Skoro 
La ;   9,500-13,800  feet. 


Phaseolaceae. 

Colutea  arborescens  L.     Conway,  op.  cit.,  p.  79  ;    var.  nepalensis  L.     Between 
Paiju  and  valley  of  the  Punmah  ;  25th  July,  1909. 
Astragalus  up.     Paiju;   about  11,000  feet. 
Specimen  iiiipcrfcct  and  without  fruit. 

Astragalus  CandoUeamis  Royle  =  A.  Royleanus  Bunge.  Conway,  p.  79. 
Rdokass  ;  13,025  feet,  between  Askoley  and  half-way  between  Korophon  and 
Bardumal. 

Chesneya  cuneata  Benth.  Conway,  p.  79.  Between  Askoley  and  half-way 
between  Korophon  and  Bardumal. 

Caragana  poh/acanthn  Royle.  Conway,  p.  79.  Braldoh  valley,  between  Dusso 
and  Askoley;  8,000-10,000  feet. 

Oxytropis  lapponica  Gaud.  Bullock  Worknum,  p.  287  ;  var.  typica  ?  Ascent 
of  Skoro  La,  north  side;    10,000-13,000  feet. 

Var.  humifusa  Kar.  et  Kir.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Oxytropis  mollis  Royle.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side  ;    10,000-13,000  feet. 

Oxytropis  microphylla  DC.  Braldoh  valley  between  Dusso  and  Askoley, 
8,000-10,000  feet ;  between  Askoley  and  half-way  between  Korophon  and  Bar- 
dumal. 

Oxytropis  sp.     Deosai  tableland ;   about  14,000  feet. 

Phaseolacea.     Braldoh  valley ;  8,000-10,000  feet. 

Example  with  leaves  only,  not  determinable.     Perhaps  Astragalus. 


Botanical  lieport.  465 

Geraniaceae. 

Geranium  pratense  L.  ?  Conway,  p.  78.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-13,000 
feet. 

Geranium  sp.     Conway,  p.  78.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Geranium  aconitifolium  L'Herit.  ?    Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Tatnaricaceae. 

Myricaria  elegans  Royle.  Conway,  p.  78.  Biaho  valley,  between  Paiju  and 
the  Biafo  glacier,  10,000-10,650  feet,  26th  July,  1909. 

Elaeagnaceae. 

IJvpjwph'ie  rlmnmoides  L.     Conway,  p.  83.     Valley  of  the  Braldoh,  between 

Dusso  and  Askoley. 

Our  specimens  with  thorny  branches  confirm  once  more  tlie  variability  and  polymorphism 

of  this  si)ccies. 

Thymelaeaceae . 

Daphne  oleoides  Schreb.  Conway,  p.  83.  Valley  of  the  Braldoh,  between 
Dusso  and  Askoley,  8,000-10,000  feet. 

Lythraceae. 

Epilobium  latifolium  L.  Rdokass,  13,025  feet ;  ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side, 
10,000-13,000  feet. 

Apiaceae. 

Bupleurum  falcalum  L.  var.  nigrocarpum  Jaquem  ?  Conwa}-,  p.  80.  Deosai 
tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Without  specimens  of  fruit  it  is  impossible  to  differentiate  this  from  the  similar  species 
B.  dive rsi folium  Rochel. 

Bupleurum  longicaule  Wall.  var.  himalense  Klotsch.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La, 
north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Witliout  fruit. 

Apiacea  sp.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Apiacea  sp.    Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Specimen  with  leaves  only,  noted  in  journal,  No.  8a,  as  having  reddish  flowers. 

Pirolaceae. 

Pirola  rotundifolia  Linn.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet,  June-July,  1909. 
Leaves  only. 
(9221;  2  a 


Kif)  Appendix  D. 

Primulaceae. 

Primula  purpurea  Royle.  Conway,  j).  91  ;  AVorkman,  p.  287  (siil).  P.  nivalis 
Pall.  var.  macrophi/lla  Pax).     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Specimens  with  siiii])le  flonil  or  double  superposed  umbels. 

Primula  farinosa  L.  Conway,  p.  81.  cites  the  var.  caucasica  Reg.  Between 
Dusso  and  Askoley,  about  the  camp  ;  Rdokass,  13,025  feet ;  ascent  of  Skoro  La, 
north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Androsace  villosa  L.  Conway,  oj).  cit.,  p.  81.  Rdokass,  13,025  feet ;  between 
Dusso  and  Askoley,  Braldoh  valley,  8,000-10,000  feet. 

Androsace  mucronifolia  AYatt.     Deosai  tableland,  about  1 1.000  feet. 

Plumbaginaceae. 

Acantholimon  hjcopodioidcs  Bo'iss.  Conway,  p.  81.  Between  Askoley  and  half- 
way between  Korophon  and  Bardumal. 

Example  consisting  only  of  rosettes  of  foliage. 

Gentianaceae. 

OrMliana  aquatlca  L.  var.  ?     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Must  be  referable  to  one  of  the  varieties  of  G.  (iqvatica  ;  6'.  pi/miKi  C'iarUr  ami  (/.  Iiiimilis 
Stev.  are  also  very  closely  related  lo  the  s))eeies,  and  possibly  belong  to  it  as  varieties. 

Gentiawi  decumhens  Linn,     .\sreiit  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Genllana  detonsa  Fries.  =  G.  barbata  Froel.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Gentiana  Sect.  Conmstoma.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

We  have  here  a  very  interesting  plant  related  to  G.  falriilu  Turc/.,  iiiid  to  tlie  two  species 
described  by  Murl)eck  {Oi'sl.  Bol.  Zcitsrhr.,  41»,  lH!)i),  p.  241)  under  the  names  (/.  J/alini  and 
G.  citrdispptilii.     Ours  is  prol)al)ly  a  new  form. 

Gentiana  s|).     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Gentiana  sp.     .Vscent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Pleurogyne  carinthiaca  L.     Conway,  p.  82.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-13,000 

feet. 

Pleurogyne  sp.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Swertia  petiolata  Royle.     Deosai  tableland,  ca.  14,000  feet. 

Boraginaceae. 

Macrotomia  perennis  Boiss.      Conway,  p.  82  (sub  M.  endochroma  Hook.  fil.  & 
Thorns).     Between  Askoley  and  half-way  between  Konophon  and  Bardumal. 
Onosma  echioides  L.     Conway,  p.  82.     (Sine  loco  !) 
Erytrichium  sp.     Conway,  p.  82.     Deosai  tableland. 
Absence  of  fruit  prevents  the  precise  determination  of  tliis  plant. 
Merlensia  tibetica  Clarke.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 


Botanical  Report.  4G7 

Mertensia  primuloides  Clarke.     Vigiie  glacier,  about  16,500  feet. 
Myosolis  sylvatica  Hoffni.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet ; 
Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Actinocarya  tibetica  Benth.  ?     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Lamiaceae. 

Slachys  tibcllca  Vatke.  Conway,  p.  82.  Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000 
feet. 

Nepela  discolor  Royle.  Conway,  p.  83.  Between  Askoley  and  half-way 
between  Korophon  and  Bardumal. 

Nepeta  longibracteata  Benth.  ?     Vigne  glacier,  about  16,500  feet. 

The  identification  i.s  somewhat  d()ul)tiiil,  as  the  dimen.^ions,  particularly  of  the  leaves,  are 
smaller  than  those  given  in  the  dcsciiptions  we  have  consulted.  Perhaps  we  have  to  do  with 
a  form  of  the  species. 

Dracoceplmlwii  heterophyllum  Benth.  ?     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Thymus  SerpyUum  L.  Conway,  p.  82.  Deosai  tablela)id,  about  14,000  feet ; 
ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet ;  Vigne  glacier,  about  16,500 
feet. 

Scrophulariaceae. 

Veronica  alpina  L.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

This  species  is  not  given  in  the  Flora  of  Brilish  India,  nor  in  later  authors  already  cited  ;  thus 
it  is  a  now  addition  to  the  flora  of  the  region.  However,  it  is  certain  that  we  have  here  to  do  with 
r.  <ilj>ina  L.,  our  specimen  being  very  closely  related  to  the  forms  of  this  .sj)ecics  found  in  northern 
Eui'ope  (Norway,  &e.). 

Pedicularis  bicornuta  Kl.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Pedicularis  pcctinala  Wall.  Conway,  p.  82.  Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000 
feet ;  ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Pedicularis  cheilantM folia  Schrenk.  Workman,  p  287.  Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 
Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Pedicularis  rhinantJioides  Schrenk.     Deosai  tableland. 

Orobanchaceae. 

Orobanche  sp.  aft.  Hansii  Kern.     Conway,  p.  82.     (Sine  loco.) 

Caprifoliaceae. 

Lonicera  microphylla  AVilld.  Conway,  p.  80.  Valley  of  the  Braldoh,  between 
Dusso  and  Askoley,  8,000-10,000  feet. 

Lonicera  asperifolia  Hook.  iil.  &  Thorns.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Possibly  a  distinct  form  of  this  species,  but  lack  of  material  for  comparison  prevents  certitude. 
Used  for  firewood  on  the  expedition. 

(9221)  2  o  2 


468  Appendix  D. 

Valerianaceae. 

Valeriatia  dioica  L.  Conway,  p.  81).  Between  Askolev  and  tlie  foot  of  the 
Skoro  La  glacier,  9,500-12,800  feet. 

Campanulaceae. 

Cnilono'psis  nrnfa  Bentli.     Rdokass,  l.'i,02r)  feet. 

Campfniuld  tuixle.stii  Hook.  iil.  &  Thoui.s.     Deosai  tjihlclaiid,  about  14,00(1  feet. 

Asteraceae. 

Aster  heterochaeta  Benth.  Bullock  Workman,  p.  288.  Rdokass,  13,025 
feet. 

Aster  himalaicus  Clarke.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Aster  sp.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Possibly  a  smaller  form  of  the  preceding. 

Leontopodium  alpinum  Cass.  Conway,  p.  80 ;  Worktnan,  j).  288 ;  vai'. 
7iivale  Ten.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet ;  Vigne  glacier, 
about  1G,000  feet ;  above  Rdokass,  about  14,750  feet ;  Deosai  tableland,  about 
14,000  feet. 

On  the  grounds  given  by  Dr.  Karl  von  Keissler  in  Aujziihhmg  der  von  E.  Zvyimiyer  in  Tibet 
gesamindl  I'hanerogamen  {Ann.  KK.  Naturhist.  Hojmuseum  von  Wicn,  Band  XXII,  1907,  p.  27) 
the  forms  of  this  species  examined  by  us  must  be  ascribed  to  var.  nivale  Ten.  iSyll.  Fl.  Neapol., 
p.  42(),  and  arc  closely  related  to  the  forms  found  in  (lie  high  Apemiines  (Cran  Sasso, 
Majella,  &c.). 

Erigeron  alfinus  L.  ?  forma.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000 
feet. 

Erigeron  andryaloides  Clarke.  Conway,  p.  80.  Between  Askoley  and  half-way 
between  Korophon  and  Bardumal. 

Anaphalis  virgata  Thorns.     Conway,  p.  30.     Paiju-Punmah. 

Anaphalis  nubigena  DC.  Conway,  p.  80.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-13,000 
feet ;  Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Tanacetuni  sp.  Between  Askoley  and  the  foot  of  the  Skoro  La  glacier,  9,500- 
12,800  feet. 

Tanacetuni  sp.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Artemisia  sp.     Valley  of  the  Braldoh,  sandy  soil. 

Artemisia  sp.  aff.  Absinthium  L.  ?  Valley  of  the  Braldoh  between  Dusso  and 
Askoley,  sandy  soil. 

Artemisia  sp.     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north  side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

ChrysantJiemum  tibeticutn  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Chrysanthemum  Stoliczkae  Clarke.  Conway,  p.  81.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  north 
side,  10,000-13,000  feet. 

Cremanthodium  aff.  Decaisnei  Clarke  ?     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 


Botanical  Report.  469 

Senecio  aS.  tihelicus  Hook.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Allardia  veslita  Hook.  fil.  &  Thorns.  ?  Vicinity  of  Rdokass,  about  16,500  feet ; 
22nd  July,  1909,  in  leaf ;  Vigne  glacier,  about  16,500  feet,  in  flower. 

Allardia  nivea  Hook.  j51.  &  Thorns.  Moraine  of  the  Baltoro  below  Rdokass, 
24th  July,  1909. 

Allardia  tomentosa  Dene.  ?     Vigne  glacier,  about  16,500  feet,  15th  July,  1909. 

Jurinea  nmcrocephala  Benth.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Saussurea  Schultzii  Hook.  fil.  ?     Ascent  of  Skoro  La,  10,000-1.3,000  feet. 

Saussurea  Jacea  Clarke  ?  Gorge  of  the  Punmah  ;  26th  July,  1909  ;  between 
Askoley  and  half-way  between  Korophon  and  Bardumal,  in  leaf. 

Saussurea  sp.     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Crepis  ghmerata  Dene.  ?     Deosai  tableland,  about  14,000  feet. 

Taraxacum  officinale  L.  forma.  Conway,  p.  81.  Ascent  of  Skoro  La, 
10,000-13,000  feet. 

One  of  the  many  high-mountain  forms  of  this  ubiquitous  and  polymorphous  plant. 

Taraxacum  officinale  L.  var.  eriopoda  DC.     Rdokass,  13,025  feet. 

Chondrilla  graminea  Benth.  Bullock  Workman,  p.  288;  var.?  Between 
Paiju  and  the  Punmah. 

Must  be  a  variety  of  this  species  which  is  cited  tentatively  by  the  Workmans. 

Laetuca  tatarica  C.  A.  Meyer.     Conway,  p.  81  ;    Workman,  p.  388.     (Sine  loco.) 


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